Indian Society Chapter 6 The Challenges Of Cultural Diversity

Cultural diversity denotes a nation wherein people of different beliefs, religions, customs and rituals are living together. Thus, cultural diversity depicts difference and not inequality or discrimination.

It so happens when difference is understood as inequality or discrimination by some polluted minds particularly those who are in predominant posture in view of three capital i.e. economic, social and cultural.

Yes, diversity provides with sensitivity, intelligence through inquisitive attitude of people. An entire universal knowledge and experiences can be obtained from such society. A child living in such diverse society, learns automatically; the factual aspects of human life, its objectives and unprecedented growth of natural sciences and metaphysics in balanced way cannot be ruled out. What matters here is an ideal socialisation that a child obtains from family, neighbours, school and other communities. It means his ascriptive identity should be as clean as a scale so that he could write the creative words on it through his acquired traits in future and lead the society to the path of progress and prosperity in an splendid way.

The reported heinous and ghast incidents and accidents therein E.g. communal riots, gender bias, casteism and demands for regional autonomy by groups of people and so-called organisations, fill the heart with apprehension of severe damage to India's unity and integrity. However, a detailed study of the Modern History of India, would reveal that such divisive problems of today are not new but descending down continuously since independence and even the period earlier to that.

These are that of regionalism, communalism and casteism.

It is because assumption, conception and finally, setting-up of nation states depend on cultural communities who decide themselves how would they be managed by a system. It means nation-states are name systems adopted by cultural communities.

It is because there is no other criterion so far invented for the introduction of a man. Every individual is born in a family. Each family is descendant of some ancestors, there are kiths and kins connected with marital ties. Hence, it is society that gives name to an individual.

Basically, man is also an animal and it is evident from the gregarious instinct found in all of them alike other organism and animals. He is one of the species of mammals and all the difference that seen in form, is inculcated within him, through the process of socialisation that starts first from one's family. Mazzini has, therefore, truly stated—'A child learns the first chapter of civilization between the kiss of mother and the care of father'. Every child, at the time of birth is as innocent as the Kids of other mammals. Whatever he learns directly or impliedly during the years between cradle and early adolescence has come that forms nuclens and he/she analyses issues thereafter, in their light. It is family that gives him name, surname, caste clan etc. just after a few days after his birth and according to prevailing rituals. He is addressed by the same identity in all spheres of the community i.e. school, neighbourhood, colony, government offices etc.

If we do in the way in which we are socialised or taught how to live in society by our immediate families and our communities in various senses. Eg. we tell our name, surname, caste, etc. as our parents have given us and that all sticks to us thoughout our life.

This process involves a continuous dialogues, negotiation, interaction and even struggle against significant others i.e. our parents, family, kin group and our community. It is our community that provides us the language and cultural values i.e. living manners, education, various arts and skills, affinity for the place where we live (i.e. region) and ethics. By virtue of these cultural values, we comprehend the world and these anchor our self-identity.

Community identity is not acquired but sticks to us with the birth. For example, if someone is born in Brahmin family, he sees people from other castes show reverence and honour to his family. Such feelings leads him to destructive path because his mind is fed in ego. In case, he could not accomplish education expected for the profession of a priest, he would resort to negative side of activities like contumacy, plotting, intrigue etc. and thus, spread malaise of conflicts, controversies etc. in the community attended by him as Brahmin. Likewise, transmission of socialisation, not duly explained by parents or whatever told if that all is untrue; brings malaise in society/ community and thus, cultural challenges are asroused. 

People feel a deep sense of security and satisfaction in belonging to communities in which their membership is entirely accidental or by more reason of birth. It is actually the fault of perceptions as we take things as granted without plunging in depth to find out reality, such blind affiliation to one's ascriptive identity is the main reason for understanding it as difference and not that of diversity in our culture. Such blind loyalty manifests in communalism, casteism and regionalism. Thus, even the most educated people are seen indulged with subversive activities conducted/performed at the behest of some shrewd people intended to get the demands be fulfilled by the government.

It is because everyone has a motherland, a mother tongue, a family and a faith wherever he lives in the world. The sole purpose of education also one of the most important components to socialisation is to inculcate a sense of reflexivity or introspection so that every child could understand or unveil the reality. An individual cannot be deceived by anybody from outside and even from within when self-realisaiton or conscience is acquired. It cannot be inculcated by teachers but comes through self-analysis and contemplation without any attachment to the ascriptive identity.

It gives birth to marvelous type of conflicts in which each side thinks of the other side as a a hated enemy and there is a tendency to exaggerate the virtues of one side as well as the view of the other side. It is a kind of delusion and derivation that grips the minds of people involved in such conflicts. Almost similar happens when two nations are at war as patriots in each nation see the other as the enemy aggressor and each side believes that god and truth are on their side.

Japan had recently on 15th August, 2005 apologised for the atrocities of war and colonisation during 1904 to 1919 when she occupied part of East Asia including Korea and parts of China. It is really exemplary that a country bears sensitivity and reflexivity to such a great extent. Her prime minister Janichiro Koizumi had apologised those nations, the victims of Japan and those nations who were killed, injured or any way caused discomforts and unease. He had committed that Japan would not ever wage war again in future. Each individual/national from all centres in the world should take a lesson from that official apology begged by Japan and try to maintain peace and harmony at his/her home and in the world. The same has been done by people of white-European origin for the native people of Australia.

In simple sociological perspective, nation is a kind of large-scale community or grandfather of communities. This term is a collective noun and enables a group of people with same language, culture and history, who see in a particular area under one government. It is an organisation desired by each member of the community in order to look into the vast collective issues more efficiently and in the interest of them all.

This term is an abstract noun. It therefore, refers to an abstract entity consisting of a set of political-legal institutions claiming control over a particular geographical territory and the people living in it. In other words state is an organised political community forming part of a country.

Nation is an assumption that can sustain or remain as nation i.e. the largest community with the sweet cohesion of nationality i.e. its abstruct form. It is only power that prevents cultural diversity from its conversion into cultural challenges. Mutual trust, support and identification of communities interwoven with it can only give a nation its everlasting existence.

As native is an aspiration of its member communities, it is difficult to define a nation. It is like a breathing air that requires state for its manifestation. There are nations founded on the basis of common cultural, historical and political institutions but it is hard to come up with any defining features i.e. any characteristics that a nation must possess.

Each community i.e. an ethnic group, a religious community or a regionally defined is capable to form a nation but it is difficult to name a particular community in this respect. In brief, the community whosoever will train it to nationalist traits and its ostentation free activities manifested in the territory concerned, will undoubtedly form a nation.

Other kinds of communities are comprising ethnic group (common descent, language and culture), religious community (amy of the religion like .Muslim, Sikhs, Parsi, Christianity) and community based on region or regionally deposed community. The only difference between nation and in these communities is that nation is always with a state thus, state is the main feature of a nation.

More than one nation was represented by a state or there were mostly two or more nations in a state or it was not necessary that every nation must have its own state in the past. However, an assumption of one to one bond between nation and state have formed recently since last a few decades. Eg. there were 100 nationalities in Soviet Union in the past and Jamaica where Non-resident Jamaicans are excess to resident Jamaicans (North America).

It is because in a state of cultural diversity, affinity of people to their ethnic, religious, linguistic community is much stronger than to their country. In other words, national feelings are next to their ascriptive identity. In these circumstances, it is difficult for a nation to secure loyalty and obedience of their citizens through policies of assimilation or integration.

As states have observed that citizens are more concerned to their ascriptive identity (viz ethnic, linguistic, regional and religious) but it may harm the unity of the state/nation; they are resorting to either repress or ignore taken on the political domain.

These confer power to dominant group and eliminate the autonomy of minority groups, laws are framed following dominant group, language of dominant group is adopted as the only official language and seize lands, forest and fisheries from ministry group. These are declared as national resources.

Yes, it is so because there appears no precise notion or criterion for state formation. Each criterion has an exception because every model of nation and state can be seen operating in the world. In such a situation, community identity would be capable to state formation but it too is being as an enemy by the existing states. When such is the circumstances, it can be stated that there is all possibility coming back tyranny or authoritarianism shortly. The assimilationist and integrationist policies of state are seen as precursor of the future.

It is because these policies emphasise upon limiting public culture to a common national pattern. At the same time, these policies put the public culture in the category of private affair or sphere. Thus, a common nation culture framed at the will of the state, mostly favourable to or copied down from the predominant majority community is being imposed on the all citizens.

(i) There is the least or zero relationship of between any specific form of community and the modern form of the state.

(ii) Language, religion, ethnicity no longer will lead to formation of a nation.

(iii) There is application of suppression of minority communities not having social, economic and cultural capital capable to complete with the dominant majority presently, being given to power.

(i) Society : (i) Second largest population in the world (1029 million as per 2001 census.)

(ii) Cultural diversity:

(i) 1632 different languages and dialecets

(ii) 22 languages recognised officially under schedule -8 Of constitution.
(iii) Religion : Hindus (80.5%), Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%)

(i) Here is not an assimilationist model but state policy indirect way is constantly practsing assimilationist theme. Eg. Accession of states.

(ii) Constitution declares India a secular state but religion, language, etc. are always favoured (Eg. subsidy for Haj) pilgrimage)

(iii) Laws and principles are all right but here is always problems in the sphere of implementation.

(i) It is an alternative to nation-state hence, state nation.

(ii) Various nations formed on basis of ethnic, religious, linguistic or indigenous identities can co-exist peacefully in such state-nation.

(iii) Policies are made to end the cultural exclusion and to build multiple identities.

(iv) Citizens are allowed to live with their both identities i.e. ascriptive and national.

(i) Her constitution incorporates the nation of state-nation with provision committing to multiple and complementary identities.

(ii) Here citizens can simultaneously maintain their ascriptive identity and allegiance to nation.

(iii) A number of programmes are conducted for abolition of cultural exclusion of diverse groups.

(iv) Indian federation has formed with 28 states and 7 UTs. Hence, it is a state-nation.

Concentration of similarity of language, culture, tribes and religion at a particular area rises in the form of regional affinity or regionalism. Mostly demand for a new state is raised by these regions. Owing to maintain peace and order India have been organising states since 1956 CE. In 2000 CE three new states of Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh were formed on the basis of such demands.

India was scattered in three large Presidencies (i.e. Bombay, Calcutta and Madras), including some other Presidencies and provinces directly administered, a large princely states were Mysore, Kashmir and Baroda. These all units were subsequently reorganised in states as response to strong popular protests, demands and demonstrations.

(i) Commitments made by national leaders in the decade of 1920 CE.

(ii) The India National Congress was reconstituted in linguistic lives.

(iii) Popular movements were launched for reorganisation of states on linguistic lines in Bombay, Madras, Mysore and Hyderabad.

(iv) In Andhra, an activist leader Potti Sri Ramulu died seven weeks after beginning his, fast his unto death. Hence, Indian government had to decide setting-up SRC.

The grounds for re-organisation of these states were ethinicity, tribal identity, language, regional deprivation and ecology in their combined form. These all factors were crystalled in an intense regionalism.

Liberalisation has given liberty to private investment to Indian and foreign invetors/entrepreneures, companies. They all choose states already developed and were banking, transportation communications, insurance etc. facilities are amply available. This is because profit is main motive in business activities. Thus, the already developed states become more affluent in terms of further development of infrastructure, markets, industries, etc. while other states under developed are facing financial and infrastructural crisis. Eg. Uttaranchal, north east states including Meghalaya, Sikkim, Mizoram, Nagaland, etc. Thus, some states are growing more and more rich while some other are facing severe poverty conditions.

Religious identity being in its abstract form and presence of a member of agents in the form of priests, prophets, Brahmins, monks etc. it is imposed on the society. Metaphysics being a subject of in-depth contemplation, introspection and penance, we all people in society never bother ourselves to find out reality. This is so because modern house-hold life hardly leaves time to ponder upon such topics. Each among us, therefore, does copy of what these agents say or suggest. Moreover, ways to observe religion are with much or less difference. Hence, followers are hurt whenever they see some others have done anything that is understood unfair in their religion. Actually, the perceived form of religion is delusive in itself as it is a matter of conception after in-depth contemplation, concentration and meditation popularly known as yogic practice.

These are : (i) Secular-communalism set and (ii) the minority-majority set. The first set raises issues about the states relationship to eligion and to political groups who make it as their primary identity. Another set of issue relates to state's treatment to aseriptive identity i.e. a combined form of religion, ethnicity and culture.

It is simultaneously both an inclusive and democratic vision i.e. an acute contradiction. One side, the nationalism recognises diversity and plurality while about of exclusion and discrimination from the society on the other. In other words, exclusion and discrimination cannot be eradicated from social hierarchy if the nationalism observes an inclusive approach for diversity and plurality. An average citizen of India cannot understand so cryptic meaning or relationship of aspects of nationalism e.g. state is secular still it provides subsidies for Haj pilgrimage and pilgrimage of holy places in Himalayan peaks.

Privileged minority depicts the minority of the wealthy persons. It is always in all societies that an affluent class remains relatively small in number but these are not subject-matter of sociology. Here 'minority' is without a qualified phrase of 'Priviledge'. It generally implies a relatively small but also disadvantaged group in society. They form groups and feel togetherness and belonging. The socialled priviledged minority is put in disadvantaged category in a cultural sense because of their small number relative to the group of overwhelming majority.

It is because irrespective of being a previleged minority in the sense of economic capital, these are poor in view of the cultural capital because of being their relatively in small number. Moreover, in democratic politics, it is always possible to convert a numerical majority into political power through elections. Hence, cultural minorities are politically vulnerable.

Following data available from 2001 census reveals the relative difference in share of cultural minorities in the total population of India and in states—

(a) Share of cultural minorities in total population of the country—

(i) Hindus—80.5% i.e. 828 millions —the majority

(ii) Muslims—13.4% i.e. 138 millions

(iii) Christians—2.3% i.e. 24 millions

(iv) Sikhs—1.9% i.e. 19 million

(v) Buddhists—0.8% i.e. 8 millions

(vi) Jains—0.4% i.e. 4 million

(vii) Other religions and sects—0.7% i.e. 7 millions.

(Total Population = 1028 million)

(b) State-wise share in population

(i) Muslism — majority in Jammu and Kashmir. A quite good share in the population of West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan.

(ii) Christians — Majority in Nagaland (90%), Mizoram (97%) and Meghalaya (70%). Their's sizable share in Goa (27%) and Kerala (19%).

(iii) Sikhs — Majority in Punjab (60%) and Scattered across the country.

(iv) Buddhists — Sikkim (28%), Arunachal Pradesh (13%), Maharashtra (6%)

(v) Jains — Maharashtra (1.3%), Rajasthan (12%) and Gujarat (1%)

Conclusion : As Hindus are scaterred in a number of sects, sub-groups, castes and sub-caste, they cannot be treated as majority while Muslisms are actually in majority. This is the reason, honorable Supreme Court has recently disclosed this fact and ordered not to treat them as unprivileged minority.

It's the formation of Bangladesh in 1971. Had Pakistan given care and protection to the cultural and linguistic rights of the people in eastern part of it, they shall have not demanded a separate nation-state that was taken-over after war in which several thousand people were killed and a number of injured including irreparable loss of public property.

It is because of the impact of modern capitalism, colonialism and large scale migration and it has brought a plurality of groups or classes. For an instance, rich and poor, entrepreneur and workers, middle class, upper middle class and upper class, etc.

Yes, communalism is meant in English by something shared by or for the use of a number of people who love together viz that of natural effect or keeping aloof oneself in the issue whatsoever. However, in South Asian meaning, it is strongly charged either positive (if one is sympathetic to communalism) or negative (if one is opposed to it).

Thus, in latter meaning, it reveals chauvinism or an agressive and unreasonable belief that one's community, religion or country is better than all others. Hence, it gives birth to riots, blood-shed and cankerous carnage.

(i) Communalism is about politics and not about religion.

(ii) The politics is given colour of religion in communalism.

(iii) A devout person may or may not be communalism and it is also not necessary that a communalist will a devout too.

(iv) Communalism is chauvinism against people of different religious identities.

(v) Communalism is an instrument in the process of establishing political identity. It is fanaticism.

(vi) Communalism overrides other identities i.e. occupation, poor or rich, caste or political beliefs, etc.

(vii) Communalism is all pervaded viz A Muslim in India is favoured in Arab countries also.

No, we cannot blame the British Government that she had invented the chauvinism of communalism. It is because such conflicts were in routine earlier than India became a colony. It is true that divide and rule policy was implemented by the British but it acted on Indian people because the malaise of communalism was already existed within them There were more than 566 princely states in India when the British came here. Pages of ancient Indian history are evident of continuous riots, conflicts between followers of each two religions. However, we should not forget that we have also a long tradition of religious pluralism ranging from peaceful co-existence to actual inter-mixing or syncretism. E.g. Medieval age poets and novelists represent this trend in India.

In Indian context, secular person or state is one that does not favour any particular religion over others. In this sense, it is just opposite of communalism or fanaticism. Secularism implies here respect for all religions rather than separation or distancing. E.g. public holidays are declared in India for all religious festivals.

In the western context, secular and secularism bear a meaning to keep state separate from the religion. Practice of religion is considered as merely voluntary and personal practice. There would remain nothing to interfere with the religion in the hands of government. It was related to science and rationality as an alternative to religion. The supporter of this theory are upset because Indian government sanctions subsidy for Haj pilgrims, manages pilgrims of holy places in Himalayas. The supporters of Indian sense of secular and secularism are upset because Goverment of India interfer with religious matters and thus fuels the fire of communalism. Eg. there is prohibition on cow slaughter while no such prohibition for pork and other animal's killing. It is unnecessary and unwarranted bias on the part of government herself. Similarly, only Sikhs are allowed to join army with turban and beard while Muslims cannot join with their whiskers and beard.

As per secularism, the government should keep herself aloof from religious groups but she provides protection to them. They are placed under a simple political survey as disadvantaged vis-a-vis the majority community and a number of reliefs, reservations are given to them. As per some opponents of this dual policy, it is only an excuse to favour the minorities in return for their votes or other kind of support. There are also supporters to this policy who say without such special protection, secularism would loss its meaning as majority community would impose its values and norms on the minorities.

In the present hotch-potch of communalisation, coalition, number game in elections, polluted human-minds because of globalisation, misuse of knowledge on world history, open field in Indian Constitution to amend, play wrench and torts Each individual of India has become simultaneously communalist, secularist, terrorists extortionist, perjurer and propagandist. Besides loss of ascriptive identity, the acquired identities have also been intermingled. In such a cloudy weather, it cannot be told which community is communalist or which is not. Goswami Tubsidas has quoted following lines that represent a correct reply to this question—

हरित भूमि तृण संकुलित, समुझि करे नहिं पंथ।
जिमि पाखंड विवाद से, लुप्त भये सद्ग्रंथ।

(viz. grass has grown so dense as it has covered the path and it is difficult to trace. Akin to it, the sparks (volume) of conscience keep them aloof when passionate or futile discussion and debates are favoured by the rabbles.

The linguistic organisation of states has helped India because it has strengthened the unity and integrity of the country. Interstate conflicts arise time to time but these are disposed or compounded with mutual discussions and with intervention of the central governments. For an instance, Punjab was reorganised on linguistic basis in April, 1966. In course of reorganisation, Himachal Pradesh being hill area, the Hindi region of Punjab was transferred to that state. Since then, this state has progressed leaps and bounds in terms of agricultural production and industrialisation.

So far as my ascriptive identity and acquired traits as also perusal of scriptures are concerned, I think the 'Hindu' term has been used for all individuals, irrespective of their caste, hierarchy, beliefs and even stereotypes; living in Hindustan. In Vedas, it is Sanatan Dharma (cosmos conscience or an everlasing realisation) which has no visible identity. It dwells in the hearts of all whosoever wants living manly and 'me living' (Aham Brahmasmi, i.e. I'm the divine flame). Actually, Gandhism' defines the relationship of Sanatan Dharm with the politics. The exponent of this religion (‘ism' modern language), Gandhi has stated—' we have to make truth, non-violence a matter not merely for individual practice but for groups, communities and nation.

Conclusion : As NCERT has done research on the events, incidents, hotch-potch in society and felt resurgence of Hindu communalists by virtue of recently acquired political power, this sentence would give a message to Hindus for introspection and avoid misusing their political power in fanaticism, chauvinism, manifested and recorded by our learned sociologists during their research. They should understand secularism in its dual form i.e. in principle and in practice—both distinct and adding a further dimension of complexity.

It explains how the political system in a nation tries to generate hate and contempt in all innocent heads and hearts of its school-going kids through study-material, electronic and post media, posters, banners, slogans and wrench and twists in histories of other countries in the world. NCERT refers it as an exclusive or radical nationalism and wants to suggest that such tactics should be avoided at all levels of administration and in families too. In an apt way, it has been explained that no individuals should think for a moment that the hurt you inflict upon other races will not inject you or that the enmities you show around your homes will be a web of protection to you for all time to come. We would like to make the following comments upon this paragraph—

(i) It is panacea to all kinds of malaises that culminates in psycho-somatic, somatic (i.e. physical) and neurological disorders viz. mania, fobias, hysteria etc.

(ii) If understood properly, it would reduce the personality of emotional outburst at home, school/colleges, offices within communities and the communal riots and other disturbances in the country. Moreover, wars between nations can also be avoided.

(iii) It advocates cosmos-conscience, the most needed essence for cosmopolitan (global-citizen) in this phase of liberalisation and globalisation.

(iv) It condemns the westernization of society in which all such tactics in the name of exclusive nationalism are adopted ab-initio (e.g. the education imparted by the French in Vietnam at Tokin Free School started in 1907 CE).

(v) It carries the mastership of आत्मवत् सर्वभूतेष (All organisms are as myself) आत्मानि प्रतिकूलानि परेषां समाद्यरेत (Don't practice upon others what you consider as not good for you)

In perspective of the question, it would be pertinent to pick out the main parts from that extract as under—

(i) Aggrieved minorities can blow up the whole fabric of the state (मई खाल की श्वाँस से सार भसम ह्वै जाय) i.e. hide of a dead animal is capable to turn iron into ashes when fitted with the propeller of primitive smelter)

(ii) French Revolution, American War of Independence and Russian Revolution are evident to the dethowning power of so-called commoners or majority.

(iii) Minority in India has so far (during 1950) made compromise with their existence in the hands of majority while they should reply like Carson of Ireland and choose partition in place of kneeling in submission to majority.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar being a jurist, scholar, political leader and the chief architect of the Indian Constitution. He was all right in his response to situation prevailing that time. Not only he but our father of the nation had also addressed dalits as Harijan (i.e. children of god) and protested against untouchability. It is also worth noticing that initially ten year's period was fixed for bringing all SC, ST people in the mainstream. However, by bringing continuous amendments in constitution, they are still in the schedule. One cannot deny the fact the these people are not any way different than other people or citizens of this country. Rich and poor can be found in all communities and even people from so-called majority are more in number in terms of B.P.L. They should therefore, resort to introspection and determine, they and their conscious would no more lik to put that label of scheduled caste and scheduled tribe on their forehand. Patiently, in this phase of liberalisation when government has squeezed all subsidies for agricultural inputs, C.C.S. etc. from agricultural sector, all our peasants are committing subcide.

Again, the recent movement launched by Gujjar community reveals that common people have now desired to get them listed in Constitution as scheduled Tribe by use of force. Countries abroad referred to, by our Constitution makers, would perhaps refer such events while taking minority issues for debate in future. They would no doubt hesitate bringing any such provisions in their Constitutions through an Amendment thereupon.

Conclusion : In this phase of globalisation, instead of gathering examples from history of the world, that too with raving enquiry; can do no good for the most complex society in India unless cosmo-conscience as suggested by Rabindra Nath Tagore is developed through self-reflexivity or introspection in depth.

This Act was passed by the Parliament on 15 June, 2005 and came into force on 13 October, 2005 by virtue of continuous representation made by several civil societies i.e. NGOs of this country. It confers each citizen of India except that of Jammu and Kashmir, to make an access to government records pertaing to this matter. Under this act, each person whosoever is willing to know the fate of his case; may request to get information from concerned public authority and that authority is bound to provide desired information to him no later than 30 days from the date that request is made in written. The authorities will have computerised their records and get certain categories of information published.

This Act overrides the official Secrets Act, 1923 and all others under which official information was prohibited.

Procedure : Citizen has to write simple application for that purpose in duplicate and get duplicate copy duly acknowledged by the concerned authority. They can inspect documents, works and records, obtain information in the form of diskettes, floppies, types, video casettes or in any other electronic mode. The stored up data bear the purpose, summed-up reference etc. with applicants' name address, telephone numbers etc.

In modern industrial cum capitalist societies, power is centralised in the institution of state and dispersed among its citizens. In the opinion of Max Weber, the state as a rural community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Thus, the state is one of the important agencies of social control whose functions are carried by means of law backed but ultimately, by physical force.

A state is characterised by few elements i.e. populations territory, government and sovereignty. It also requires international recognition. The state grows out of a particular historical process in response to the issue of legitimation of power and integration of power arrangements. To mention an orderly system of social relations, people have to be subjected to some degree of discipline. The discipline is an ordered society or state needn't always come from an external agency like the police, army or judiciary. It may come as a result of voluntary acceptance of the norms and values of the society or the constitution of the state by the people themselves.

Communities : Communities and the groups of people who share the same religion, ethnicity, culture and occupation in particular areas. These are local communities the international communities, farming communities, business communities, ethnic communities, etc. The term community has been derived from commune i.e. the smallest division of local government in France and some other European countries. These provide each individual an identity which is called community identity or ascriptive identity. It is based in birth and belonging rather than some from of acquired qualifications or accomplishment. Individuals name, his parents name, his caste, sub-caste, clean, kinship, race, area in which he born, the nation, the language etc. combinedly give him an identity, e.g.

(a) Lanugage based identity :

Hindi— Hindu, English-Englishmen,

(b) Location based—Bihar-Behari, Garhwal-Garhwali iii (c) Nation based—India-Indian; Asia-Asian (d) Caste based— Brahmin, Ksatraya, Vaisya, Sudra.

Nation—A kind of large-scale community is nation. It is described as a community of communities but it is difficult to define this term in a practical manner because—

(i) There are nations founded on the basis of common cultural, historical and political institutions.

(ii) There are also some nations that do not share common cultural identity, languages, religion and even ethnicity e.g. India.

(iii) Some languages, religions or ethnicities are spread in a number of nations. Hence, we cannot make it a strong basis for definition of a nation e.g. English, Buddhist languages are spoken in almost all nations/ countries of the world.

(iv) People forming a nation may be citizens of different states, e.g. Jamaicans majority is worked out more outside than in Jamaica (North)

Conclusion : It is generally a state that gives a unique identity to the nation. However in the past this criterian to distinguish nation from state was also untrue e.g. there had been many nations and more than one hundred nationalities in Soviet Union.

Nation-State—In general way, this is defined as a group of people with the same culture, language etc.who has formed an independent country. In recent times, there has been a one-to-one bond between nation and state i.e. one nation, one state, one state one nation. However we can not say that every nation must possess a territory in the form of a continuous geographical area Eg. Alaska and USA are the same nations but geographical distant territories. We see Alaska at the extreme north-east of Russia. Similarly Austria and Germany are with contiguous territory and people who share same language and culture but separate nation states.

Conclusion : Establishment of democracy and nationalism are the major sources that form their own state—any time and anywhere because these two are main components of farming a state.

The culture is a compound word that embeds with it. language, religion, sect, race or caste and even a particular region too. The differences in these constituents are called cultural diversity. India is a diverse country in terms of culture consciousness because here are spoken 1632 different languages and dialects. So far twenty-two languages have been recognised in 8th schedule of the Constitution. Again, there are religions like Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity etc. The Hindus also are internally or regionally specific, plural in beliefs and practices and divided by castes and languages. Here also lies diversity in topography Eg. mountain, plateau, desert, plains, marshy regions. There is diversity in dress, eating manners, rites, rituals, customs, etc. On the basis of these differences we can state that India is a very diverse country.

It is identity of an individual on the basis of his birth and belonging to a particular family that stands somewhere in social hierarchy and kinship. It's social stratification that gives an individual a particular identity i.e. his name, caste, surname etc. Community identity is formed through process of socialisation that involves a continuous dialogue, negotiation and even struggle against significant others (these directly involve in our lives). Like our parents, family, kin group and our community. Thus, community identity is determined by the accidents of birth and do not involve any choice on the part of the individual concerned.

Nation—an entity difficult to define.

(i) Many nations are founded on the basis of shared religion, language, ethnicity, history or regional culture but it is difficult to say that each nation will possess all these constituents. Eg. India. Here is found cultural diversity, ethnic diversity and diverse religions.

(ii) There are languages, religions or ethinicity used across the many nations but those cannot make a nation Eg. English is spoken in almost all countries and there are Christians but that do not form a nation there.

(iii) Thus, we see that conceptually there seems to be no hard distinction as any of the other types of community can one day from a nation but conversely, no particular kind of community can be guaranteed to form a nation.

On the basis of the above three points, it is easy to describe the nation as common cultural, historical and political institution form collectively, an entity of nation but difficulty arises in giving its precise and accurate definition.

Relationship of nation and state in modern society.

(i) Nations are communities that have a state of their own.

(ii) There is one to one bond between nation and state i.e. one nation-one state or one state-one nation.

(iii) Establishment of democracy and nationalism are the sources of a state formation in modern society. The nation is the most accepted for a state while the people and the ultimate source of legitimacy of the nation. It means state needs nation more than a nation needs a state.

(i) Cultural diversity may go beyond the loyalty to the nation or nation state because people have stronger sense of identity with their community i.e. ethnic, religious, linguistic community.

(ii) Recognition of cultural diversity may lead to social fragmentation and a harmonious society in that circumstances, cannot be created.

(iii) Assimilation policy of state may also become harmful. Hence, states resort to either suppressing these diverse identities or ignore them in the political domain.

(iv) Cultural diversity leaves no particular way for the state to implement strictly policies of assimilation and integration. The former try to erode cultural differences between groups. (i.e. ethnic, religious or linguistic) but it is difficult through passing any legislation as it would certainly be protested by one or other group. The latter seeks to assert a single national identity by attempting to eliminate ethno-nation and cultural differences from public by drawing them in the private domain but in that effort, the majority group who will become predominant shall have to bear the brunt of strong protest from other minority groups.

It refers to affinity of people to their specific area or region which has its own government, different customs and religious practices etc. It is based on diversity of languages, culture, tribes and religions. It is encouraged by the geographical concentration of these identity markers in particular regions and fuelled by a sense of regional deprivation. It depends also on the historical formation or administration of a region. Eg. prior to independence, the British had divided India into Presidency states i.e. Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. Owing to that older effect, these constitute presently major political-administrative units of a semi-federal state called the union of India. Besides this, there were princely states and principalities all over India who had accustomed to their particular kind of administration hence, posed difficulty for Indian union after independence and still pose one or other problems.

Minority in sociological perspective is releatively a small and disadvantaged group. Extremely wealthy people are not usually referred to as minorities. In case, they are addressed for any special references, they are referred to as privileged minority.
Minorities need protection from government because of demographic dominance of majority as it attains political power in democratic pattern of election. In this view of the matter, the dominant majority may use the state machinery to suppress their religious and cultural institutions and it ultimately, will force monorities to abandon their distinctive identity. However, in statewise calculation, some minorities in India are in majority E.g. In Jammu and Kashmir, there is the Muslim majority and vast population in Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Andra Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan. This is the reason, Supreme Court of India has recently declared that Muslims are no more in minorities. Similarly, Nagaland, Misaram and Meghalaya are Christian majority states and they have a good share in the population of Goa and Kerala. Sikhs have also majority in Punjab state and Buddhists are in majority in Sikkim and Arunanchal Pradesh.

It is an aggressive extremism based on religious identity. It is an attitude that sees one's own group as the only legitimate or worthy group while other .groups are considered as inferior and illegitimate. Thereofore it is aggressive political ideology linked to religion Eg. Hindus and Muslims fight frequently because each of them thinks their religion is superior to other.This extreme feeling makes them blind to see the reality. It is true that communalists are intensely involved with religion, there is in fact no necessary relationship between personal faith and communalism. It can be stated that a communalist may or may not be a devout person and devout believers may or may not be a communalist. However, all communalists do believe in political identity based on religion.

Secularism : Its Varied assumptions in India

(i) If we assume secularism in the sense that a secular state is one that does not favour any particular religion over other's, we see India is a secular state but at the sametime, she provides subsidies for Haj pilgrimage or manages the Thirupati-Timmala temple where over two crore rupees per annum are sanctioned for maintenance of elephants and again, cash support is given for pilgrimage to Himalayan Holy places. It is an apparent contradiction. Moreover, India as secular state should not allow holidays on festivals of some religions except national holidays but such is not done here.

(ii) If India is secular, she does not prohibit slaughter of cows and if she does so, why the slaughter of pigs, goats, horses etc. is not prohibited.

(iii) If Sikh soldiers are allowed with turbans in army why Muslims are not allowed with long beard and Hindu soldiers are not With shaved head (Mundan) and a braid ? The communities other than those given such privileges frequently raise such objections but India has no reply to them-still the same system is running.

(iv) One side, India declares herself secular but at the same time monorities are given privileges or they are favoured.

People raise contention that this type of virtual secularism is a fraud or dodge for getting political support from minorities in the form of public-opinion or votes. It's vote bank policy a number of people from majorities allege while the minorities say that if such transformation is not adopted, it would be an imposition of majority community's values and norms on them.

Conclusion : In brief, it can be stated on the above practices of government of India that secularism here is suffering from ambivalence. It has two forms that run-parallel and this is the reason, a number of controversies emerge and social movements develop a vested interest in keeping them alive. This ambivalence should be removed and a sound principle is to be adopted in India.

Civil society is much broader than the domain of state and market. It is beyond private domain of the family. It is public domain in which institutions and organisations are created voluntarily. It is the sphere of active citizenship, in which individuals take up social issues, try to influence the state or make demand on it, pursue their collective interests or seek support for a variety of causes. Institutions like political parties, media, trade unions, NGOs, religious movements, etc. are the entities formed in civil society.

Relevance of civil society

(i) Civil society through its voluntary organisations can interfere in the state functions where it is deemed that the state is turning into authoritarian.

(ii) As civil society is beyond control of state and market, it has sufficient power to prevent all that is not good in the common interest of people.

(iii) As civil society is not a purely commercial profit making entity, it highlights the corruption, criminalisation and discrimination practiced on part of government or any other group of people. Eg. private TV channels, trade unions are civil societies.

(iv) During emergency of 1977, it was civil society with its various institutions like media, trade union, pressure groups etc. who launched movements pertaing to environment, human right against forced sterilization and dalit movements

(v) Campaign for right to information is the most recent act of cultural society. It began with an agitation in rural Rajasthan and soon ft became nationwide agitation. Government had to pass the new law namely, the Right To Information Act, 2005.

Background : A perusal of the events that took place after independence, makes it clear that India had to choose state-nation in lieu of nation-state. The British had left behind them, three giant Presidencies including other small presidencies, a number of princely states and a number of provincial states all scattered and disorganised on the basis of ascrptive identities i.e. language, caste, ethinicity, culture, religion, etc. Mumbai and Madras Presidencies were multi-lingual states viz. Marathi, Gujarati, Kannada and Konkani speaking people in Mumbai Presidency while Tamil, Telugu, Kanada and Malayalam speaking people in Madras Presidency. These provinces and princely states had soon raised their claims for their reorganisation on linguistic basis. In these circumstances, Government of India had to constitute State Reorganisation Commission and accepts its report on their reorganisation. Thus, India had to establish her federal government in which states were given the status of federal units.

Recent studies : Recent case studies and analysis demonstrate that enduring democracies can be established polities that are multicultural. Such democracies can be established only when cultural exclusion of diverse groups is ended and multiple as also complementary identities are built. In this way, citizen can find the international and political spaces to identify with both their country and their other cultural identities. Such efforts will build their trust in common institutions and they can support and participate in democratic politics. The UNDP Human Development Report, 2004 states that modern India is facing a grave challenge to its constitutional commitment to multiple and complementary identities. This report says that Hindus are willing to impose their single identity on other peoples from other belongs and so-called religions that train them in conspiracy to insuit the over religious. It says that flaws have been found in nation-states and state-nation can only cure this situation. The report says national unity and cultural diversity can be maintained by opting for this assumption. As per report, irrespective of federal units 28 in number and 7 UTs already existed, more division can be made on the basis of ethnic, religious, linguistic or indigenous identities—these will co-exist peacefully claims the report.

The reorganisation of the provinces of India on longinstic basis had been one of the demands of the Indian National congress in the struggles against the British government. In free India, the question of reorganisation was forced up by the fast and death of Potti Sriramulus. It generated chaotic situation in the province and thus, Telugu State of Andhra Pradesh was created. In order to examine objectively and dispassionately the issue of reorganisation of states, government of India had constituted a commission namely State Reorganisation Commission in 1954 with Fazal Ali as Chairman and two other member Pt. Hridaya Nath Kuryou and Sardar K.M. Parikkar. This commission carried out indepth surveys and studies on the issue and submitted its report in September 1955 and thus, state Reorganisation Act was passed in November 1956. In persuance with the recommendations of commission, 14 states and 6 Union Territories were created.

In 1961, Bombay state was bifurcated to form the two states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. In 1962, the state of Nagaland was created thus, presently there are 28 states and 7 Union territories in India.

As per the UNDP Human Development Report, 2004 that finds place in this text book, a recommendation has been given to divide India in more states as nations or nationalities on the basis of ethnicity, religion, language or indigenous identities and thus, this report wants to see India as a democratic state-nation. It says that modern India is facing a grave challenge to its constitutional commitment to multiple and complementary identities with the rise of groups that seek to impose a singular Hindu identity on the country. Recent communal violence has raised serious concerns for the prospects for social harmony and threatenings to undermine the country's earlier achievements. It is therefore, needful that multiple and complementary identities in the form of smaller units are to be formed and protected. Such an effort will cater to India's commitment to practices of pluralism, institutional accommodation and conflict resolution through democratic means—says the report. It is hopeful that building state nations will accommodate diversity constructively by crafting reform policies of cultural recognition.

In case, the case studies and surveys upon present scenario of politics and people's aspirations; all it indicates need for further reorganisation of states or further division of India in nationalities or nations, following suggestions can be given:

(i) Unity of the nation should be given top priority.

(it) Any plan, programmes, policies that pose tensions and objections from people should be rescinded.

(iii) The fanatic approach of linguistic unity should be rejected if other factors not allow such reorganisation.

(iv) The economic needs vis-a-vis available national resources in the regions should be given thought in course of debates upon their reorganisation.

(v) Means for sustaining such a state/ nation proposed for reorganisation should be in ample quantum so that process of development is not barred and the state can bear the expenses incurred in the stately affairs and administration.

(vi) The main objective of reorganisation of state should be to bring in administrative facility. The trade and industry as a result of reorganisation should flourish and the feelings of people a be given a reasonable importance.
People in favour of smaller states oppose that the public in that case, will make an easy access to the administration and grievances are redressed immediately. People's cooperation for community development programmes can be obtained more quickly in smaller principalities/nationalities/states as UNDP Report, 2004 proposes. People against organisation of smaller states see hurdles varied way while sitting for debate and final decision upon any national plan or programme as the predival delay cannot be ruled out. Moreover, non-plan expenditure (Salaries of M.L.As, M.Ps, officials, office expenses including stationery and official apparatuses etc.) will rise-up considerably and each state intends to show reluctance if concerned plan is not in its advantage. Thus, a series of objections, arguments, undue debates will defeat the purpose of the concerned policy and gradually, a chaotic situation may be created. Source of income are reduced while expenses increases marifold in smaller states—say people not in favour of creation of more states. People in favour of reorganisation on the basis of language say, social unity will establish in these states and it is most essential for a republic state like India. They add further that regional language will observe development as a result of organisation of state on linguistic basis. People will able to express their sentiments more efficient ways in their own language which will strengthen unity and integrity. It is the policy of the nation. Reorganisation of states on linguistic line will create ethnic and language ego in the states in ratio of the political parties. Legislative assembly will then become an assembly of nation or a nation to the state. In case, each state gives official status to its language, the Centre will have in the circumstance, to do communication in all their languages adopted by the states. The courts including Supreme Court of India will have to render their decision in an languages adopted by the states concerned. Further, it is unpracticable in view of accounts and auditing because it will become tough to bring uniformity and coordination in auditing. Thus, they say the principle of one language-one nation/state is baseless.

International non-governmental organization (INGOs) can be founded by private philanthropy.For example Greenpeace, The Red Cross,  Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and etc.

Assimilation: Assimilation is a process of cultural unification and homogenisation by which newly entering or subordinate groups lose their distinctive culture and adopt the culture of the dominant majority. Assimilation can be forced or voluntary.
For example: Seizure of lands forests and fisheries from minority groups and indigenous people and declaring them national resources.

Intergration: Integration is a process of cultural unification whereby cultural distinctions are relegated to the private domain and a common public culture is adopted for all groups. This usually involves the adoption of the dominant culture as the official culture.
For example: Adoption of state symbols celebrating the dominant groups history, heroes and culture reflected in such things as choice of national holidays or naming of streets etc.

Civil society is much broader than the domain of state and market. It is beyond the private domain of the family. It is public domain in which institutions and organisations are created voluntarily. It is the sphere of active citizenship, in which individuals take up social issues, try to influence the state or make a demand on it, pursue their collective interests or seek support for a variety of causes. Institutions like political parties, media, trade unions, NGOs, religious movements, etc. are the entities formed in civil society.

Relevance of civil society

1. Civil society through its voluntary organisations can interfere in the state functions where it is deemed that the state is turning into an authoritarian.
2. As civil society is beyond the control of state and market, it has sufficient power to prevent all that is not good in the common interest of people.
3. As civil society is not a purely commercial profit-making entity, it highlights the corruption, criminalisation and discrimination practised on part of the government or any other group of people. Eg. private TV channels, trade unions are civil societies.
4. During emergency of 1977, it was a civil society with its various institutions like media, trade union, pressure groups etc. who launched movements pertaining to the environment, human right against forced sterilization and Dalit movements
5. Campaign for the right to information is the most recent act of cultural society. It began with an agitation in rural Rajasthan and soon ft became nationwide agitation. The government had to pass the new law namely, the Right To Information Act, 2005.

Encouraging cultural diversity – ( using case of India as a Nation-state)

1. The Indian Nation-state is socially and culturally one of the most diverse countries of the world.
2. It has one of the largest populations speaking multiple languages (dialects).
3. It consists of multiple religions, plural in beliefs and practices.
4. In terms of Nation-state’s relationship with community identities, the Indian case fits neither the “assimilationist“nor the “integrationist” model.
5. The Constitution declares the State to be a secular state, but religion, language and other such factors are not banished from the public sphere.
6. By international standards, very strong constitutional protection is offered to minority religions.
7. India’s problems have been more in the sphere of implementation and practice rather than Laws or principles.

(i) In democratic politics, it is always possible to convert a numerical majority into political power through elections.
(ii) The dominant majority uses the state machinery to suppress the religious or cultural institutions of the minorities; forcing them to abandon their distinctive identity.

Linguistic recognition of States helped rather than harmed India:
(i) It was felt that State based on language might hasten further a sub-division of India. However, far from undermining the Indian unity, linguistic states have helped strengthed it.
(ii) It was taken to be perfectly consistent to be a Kannadigo and Indian Bengali and Indian, Tamil and India, Gujarati and India.
(iii) These States based on language, sometimes quarrel with each other; while these disputes are not petty, they could infact have been far worse.
(iv) If the aspirations of the Indian language communities had been ignored, we might have got 'one language, 14 or 15 nations'.

Two factors that encourage regionalism are as under:
(i) Regionalism is encouraged by the geographical concentration of these identity markers in special parts and fuelled by a sense of regional deprivation. 
(ii) Regionalism is deeply rooted in India because of the diversity of languages, cultures, tribes and religions. It cannot be gainsaid that language plays a sentimental role in the sphere of regionalism. 

Community identity is based on birth and ‘belonging’ rather than on some form of acquired qualifications or ‘accomplishment’. It is what we ‘are’ rather than what we have ‘become’. We don’t have to do anything to be born into a community – in fact, no one has any choice about which family or community
or country they are born into.

Article 29

1) Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a
distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.

Article 30

1) All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. 

Privileged minorities such as extremely wealthy people are not usually referred to as minorities; if they are, the term is qualified in some way, as in the phrase ‘privileged minority’. When minority is used without qualification, it generally implies a relatively small but also disadvantaged group.

1. The RTI ACT 2005 is a law enacted by the Parliament of India. This Act gives Indians (except those in the state of J&K who have their own special law) access to Government records.
2. Under the terms of RTI Act, any person may request information from 'a public authority' (a body of Government or instrumentality of state) which is expected to reply as soon as possible or within 30 days.

3. The Act also requires every public authority to computerise their records for wide dissemination and to proactively publish certain categories of information so that the citizens need minimum recourse to request for information formally.

4. The Right to Information Act specifies that citizens have a right to inspect documents, works & records on public issues.

Regionalism refers to the ideology of commitment to particular regional identity which could be based on language, ethnicity and other characteristics in addition to geography.

1. Community identity is commonly based on birth and belonging rather than on some form of acquired qualifications.
2. The ascriptive identities and community feeling is that they are universal.

There are different senses in which Secularism' has been understood in India:

1. In the western context, it is a doctrine by which the state is kept strictly separate from religion. It means separation of 'Church and State' as we find in western societies.
2. In terms of Indian sense, which also covers western as well, being a secular means an opposite of communal.
3. It does not favour any particular religion over others, In this sense, it is the opposite of religious Chauvinism and need not necessarily imply hostility to religion as such.
4. In terms of the state-religion relationship, this sense of secularism implies equal respect for all religions, rather than separation or distancing. For example, the secular Indian state declares public holidays to mark the festivals of all religions.

1. No doubt India is socially and culturally one of the most diverse countries of the world. With a population of about 1029 million people, these billion-plus people speak about 1,632 different languages and dialects.
2. In terms of religion, about 80.5% of the population are Hindus, who in turn are regionally specific, plural in beliefs and practices, and divided by castes and languages.
3. About 13.4% of the population are Muslims, which makes India the world’s third largest Muslim country after Indonesia and Pakistan.
4. The other major religious communities are Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%) and Jains (0.4%). Because of India’s huge population, these small percentages can also add up to large absolute numbers.

1. Communalism refers to aggressive Chauvinism based on religious identity.
2. Chauvinism itself is an attitude that sees one’s own group as the only legitimate or worthy group, on the other hand, other groups are seen as inferior,  illegitimate and opposed.
3. In other words, we can say that 'Communalism' is an aggressive political ideology linked to religion.
4. Communalism has also been a recurrent source of tension and violence. Example-anti Sikh riots of Delhi in 1984, anti-Muslim violence in Gujarat in 2002.

Features of Ascriptive Identity: 

1. They are determined by the accidents of birth and do not involve any choice on the part of the individuals concerned.
2. It is an odd fact of social life that people feel a deep sense of security and satisfaction in belonging to communities in which their membership is entirely accidental.

1. Language mixed with regional and tribal identity and not religion has, therefore, made the most powerful instrument for the making of ethno-national identity of India.
2. Sometimes, ethnicity based on tribal identity, language, regional deprivation and ecology gave the basis of intense regionalism resulting into statehood.

1. Communalism refers to aggressive Chauvinism based on religious identity.
2. Chauvinism itself is an attitude that sees one’s own group as the only legitimate or worthy group, on the other hand, other groups are seen as inferior,  illegitimate and opposed.
3. In other words, we can say that 'Communalism' is an aggressive political ideology linked to religion.

Communalism has also been a recurrent source of tension and violence. During communal riots, people become faceless members of their respective communities. They are willing to kill, rape, and loot members of other communities in order to redeem their pride, to protect their home turf. Example-anti Sikh riots of Delhi in 1984, anti-Muslim violence in Gujarat in 2002.

Assimilation is a process of cultural unification and homogenisation by which newly entering or subordinate groups lose their distinctive culture and adopt the culture of the dominant majority. It may be forced or voluntary.

Cultural diversity is a group of diverse individuals from different cultures or societies. Usually, cultural diversity takes into account language, religion, race, sexual orientation, gender, age and ethnicity.

Civil society is the non-state and non-market part of the public domain in which individuals get together voluntarily to create institutions and organisations.

1. Activities of civil society organisations have an wider range, it covers advocacy and lobbying activity with national and international agencies as well as active participation in various moments.
2. The issues taken up are: tribal struggles for land rights, devolution in urban governance, campaigns against rape and violence against women, rehabilitation of those displaced by dams and other developmental projects, fishermen’s struggles against mechanised fishing, rehabilitation of hawkers and pavement dwellers, campaigns against slum demolitions and for housing rights, primary education reform, distribution of land to Dalits, etc.
3. Civil liberties organisations have been particularly important in keeping a watch on the state and forcing it to obey the law.

Extremely wealthy people who are not disadvantaged but belong to the small minority group are the 'privileged' minorities.

(i) The anti-sikh riots of Delhi in 1984.
(ii) Anti-Muslim violence in Gujarat in 2004.

Communalism: It refers to offensive chauvinism based on religious identity. It is an aggressive political ideology linked to religion.
  Communalism has been a source of tension and violence, During communal riots, people become faceless members of their respective communities. They are willing to kill, rape, and loot members of other communities in order to redeem their pride, to protect their home turf.  No region has been wholly exempt from the communal violence of one kind or another. Every religious community has faced this violence in greater or lesser degree.