Themes In Indian History Ii Chapter 5 Through The Eyes Of Travellers

Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind, was written in Arabic. It is simple and lucid. It is a voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.

Generally (though not always), Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter, beginning with a question, following this up with a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other cultures.

Ibn-Battuta and Bernier have written the accounts of their travels from different perspectives. Ibn-Battuta described everything that impressed and excited him because of its novelty On the other hand, Francois Bernier had a different intellectural tradition. He wrote about whatever he saw in India. But he compared and contrasted it with the situation in Europe in general and France in particular. He focussed on situations which seemed depressing to him. He wanted to influence the policy makers and the intelligentsia. He wanted them to take right decisions.

In fact Bernier wanted to pin-point the weaknesses of the Indian society. He considered the Mughal India inferior to the European society.

On the other hand, Ibn-Battuta recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs and values.

The picture of Urban centres and Bernier’s account:

(i) During the seventeenth century about 15 per cent of the population lived in towns. This was, an average, higher than the proportion of urban population in Western Europe in the same period. In spite of this Bernier described Mughal cities as 'camp towns', by which he meant towns that owed their existence, and depended for their survival, on the imperial camp. He believed that these came into existence when the imperial court moved in and rapidly declined when it moved out.

(ii) Bernier suggested that cities did not have viable social and economic foundations but were dependent on imperial patronage.

(iii) Bernier was drawing an oversimplified picture. There were all kinds of towns: manufacturing towns, trading towns, port towns, sacred centres, pilgrimage towns, etc. Their existence is an index of the prosperity of merchant communities and professional classes.

(iv) Merchants often had strong community and were organised into their own caste-cum-occupational bodies. In western India these groups were called mahajans, and their chief, the sheth. In urban centres such as Ahmedabad the mahajans were collectively represented by the chief of the merchant community who was called the nagarsheth.

According to Ibn-Battuta, slaves like any other commodity, were openly sold in the markets. They were also regularly exchanged as gifts.

(i) When Ibn-Battuta reached Sind, he purchased horses, camels and slaves. He wanted to offer them as gifts to Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

(ii) When Ibn-Battuta reached Multan, he presented not only raisins and almonds to the governor but also a slave and horse.

(iii) There were some female slaves in the service of the Sultan. They were experts in music and dance. Ibn-Battuta enjoyed their performance at the wedding of the sister of Sultan.

(iv) The Sultan also employed female slaves to keep a watch on his nobles.

(v) The slaves were also engaged for domestic work. They carried men and women on palanquins or dola. But they were given low wages.

(vi) Most families kept one or two slaves.

The following elements of the practice of sati drew the attention of Bernier:

(i) It was a cruel practice in which the widow was made to sit on the pyre of her husband alive.

(ii) The widow was an unwilling victim of the sati-practice. She was forced to be a sati.

(iii) The people had no sympathy even for the child-widows.

(iv) The cries of the woman going to be a sati, did not move anyone.

(v) The Brahmans and the elderly women of the house participated in this practice or process.

Al-Biruni and the caste system in India:

(i) Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking far parallels in other societies. He noted that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognised: those of knights and princes; monks, fire-priests and lawyers; physicians, astronomers and other scientists; and finally, peasants and artisans. In other words, he attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India. At the same time he pointed out that within Islam all men were considered equal, differing only in their observance of piety.

(ii) In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system, Al-Biruni disapproved of the notion of pollution. He remarked that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity. The sun cleanses the air, and the salt in the sea prevents the water from becoming polluted. If it were not so, insisted Al-Biruni, life on earth would have been impossible. The conception of social pollution, intrinsic to the caste system, was according to him, contrary to the laws of nature.

(iii) Al-Biruni's description of the caste system was deeply influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit texts which laid down the rules governing the system from the point of view of the Brahmanas. However, in real life the system was not quite as rigid. For instance, the categories defined as antyaja (literally, born outside the system) were often expected to provide inexpensive labour to both peasants and zamindars. In other words, while they were often subjected to social oppression, they were included within economic networks.

There is no doubt that the description of Ibn Battuta is quite helpful in understanding the life-style of the Indian cities. His description seems as if the true picture emerges before our eyes.

(i) Ibn Battuta stated that Indian cities had many exciting opportunities. They were useful for those who had the necessary drive, skill and resources.

(ii) The Indian cities were densely populated. They were also prosperous. They had crowded streets. They had bright and colourful markets. They had a variety of goods.

(iii) According to Ibn Battuta, Delhi was a vast city. It had a lot of population. It was the largest city in India. Another big city was Daultabad in Maharashtra.

(iv) The markets and bazaars of the Indian cities were not only the places of the economic transactions but also the centres of social and cultural activities. Most of the bazaars had a mosque and a temple. They had also fixed places for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers.

(v) Ibn Battuta found that many towns derived their wealth and prosperity through the appropriation of surplus from villages.

(vi) According to Ibn Battuta, Indian agriculture was very productive. The farmers cultivated two crops a year because the land was very fertile.

(vii) The goods of India were in great demand in both West Asia and South-east Asia. So artisans and merchants earned huge profits. The sub-continent was well integrated with inter-Asian networks of trade and commerce.

The assessment of Bernier about the rural society of India was not correct. It was misleading and far from truth. But there is aso some truth in his descriptions which is evident from the following:

(i) Bernier has stated that in the Mughal Empire, the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles. It had a disastrous impact on the Indian economy and society.

(ii) Bernier did not consider the system of the crown ownership of land as good. Because of this, the land-holders could not pass on their land to their children. They could also not make any long-term investments. As there was no private property in land, there was not an improved class of landlords. This system ruined the whole agriculture. It also led to the oppression of the peasants. It also lowered the living standards of all sections of society.

(iii) The Bernier’s view of Indian society had the following features:

(a) It had impoverished people. The rich people constituted a small minority.

(b) It had only the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich. It had no middle class.

(c) The Mughal king was the king of beggars and barbarians.

(d) All the cities and towns were ruined. They had contaminated air.

Thus, Bernier’s descriptions of the Indian rural society brought out many social and economic differences. There were big zamindars. There were also landless labourers who were despised as the untouchables.

I. List of the names of the crafts mentioned in the passage:

This passage mentioned the crafts of making muskets and fowling pieces and making beautiful gold ornaments. These products were so beautiful that even Bernier was amazed to see these products.

II. Comparison of crafts referred in the passage with the description of artisanal activity in the chapter.

(i) In the chapter boat manufacturing and terracottan sculpture and temple architecture has been mentioned.

(ii) Art of painting has been referred related with 18th century that painting has depicted travellers gathered around a camp fire.

(iii) A seventeenth century painting depicting Bernier in European clothes and a painting depiciting in Indian clothes.

(iv) Art of carpet manufacturing has been referred.

(v) Art of dance, music and caligraphy have been referred in the chapter.

(vi) Crafts of manufacturing textile particular cotton cloth, fine muslins, silken cloth have been referred in this chapter.

(vii) Work of goldsmith and articles made of gold such as spoon studied with emeralds and rubies as an example of the dexterity of Mughal artisans have also referred in this chapter.

(viii) The imperial karkhanas and workshops (In which several kinds of artistic work was also done) have been referred in the chapter. In these karkhanas embroiderers have been described (who were employed by the emperor in the imperial workshops). In these workshops goldsmiths, painters, varnishers in lacquer work, joiners, turners, tailors, shoemakers, silken weavers and fine muslin manufacturers have been referred as great artisans of that time.

Map work is self study for the students.

Hint : Countries visited by Ibn Battuta : Morocco, Mecca, Seria, Iraq, Persia, Yamen, Oman, China, India, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Sumatra (Indonesia).

Name of Seas : North Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South China Sea, East China Sea.

Ibn Battuta:

I. Life : He was born in Tangier (Morocco, an African country). He belonged to one of the most respectable and educated familes of Tangier. The members of his family were well known for their experience in Islamic religious law. Due to the tradition of his family, Ibn Battuta received literary and scholastic education when he was quite young.

Ibn Battuta left Tangier in 1324. Before he set off for India in 1332-33, he had made pilgrimage trips to Mecca, and had already travelled extensively in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman and a few trading ports on the coast of East Africa.

Travelling over land through Central Asia,Ibn Battuta reached Sind in 1333. He had heard about Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi, and lured by his reputation as a generous patron of arts and letters, set off for Delhi, passing through Multan and Uch. The Sultan was impressed by his scholarship, and appointed his the qazi or judge of Delhi. He remained in that position for several years, until he fell out of favour and was thrown into prison. Once the misunderstanding between him and the Sultan was cleared, he was restored to imperial service, and was ordered in 1342 to proceed to China as the Sultan's envoy to the Mongol ruler.

With the new assignment, Ibn Battuta proceeded to the Malabar coast through central India. From Malabar he went to the Maldives, where he stayed for eighteen months as the qazi, but eventually decided to proceed to Sri Lanka. He then went back once more to the Malabar coast and the Maldives,and before resuming his mission to China, visited Bengal and Assam as well. He took a ship to Sumatra, and from there another ship for the Chinese port town of Zaytun (now known as Quanzhou). He travelled extensively in China, going as far as Beijing, but did not stay for long, deciding to return home in 1347.

II. Writings of the Ibn Battuta : Unlike most other member of his class, Ibn Battuta considered experience gained through travels to be a more important source of knowledge than books.

Ibn Battuta meticulously recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs, values etc. We need to bear in mind that this globe-trotter was travelling in the fourteenth century, when it was much more arduous and hazardous to travel than it is today. According to Ibn Battuta, it took forty days to travel from Multan to Delhi and about fifty days from Sind to Delhi. The distance from Daulatabad to Delhi was covered in forty days, while that from Gwalior to Delhi took ten days.

The writings of Ibn Battuta tell us that law and order was not very good at that time. Generally robbers use to rob the stranger and foreign visitor. This thing is certified the writing of Ibn Battula.

Bernier felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures, since profits were appropriated by the state. Manufactures were, consequently everywhere in decline. At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the world's precious metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver. He also noticed the existence of a prosperous merchant community, engaged in long-distance exchange.

The name of the book written by Al-Biruni was the Kitab-ul-Hind and written in Arabic, is simple and lucid. It is a voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.

(i) Introduction of Francois Bernier:Francois Bernier was a very popular and well known French doctor. He reached in the beginning of 1656 at Surat (Gujarat). He travelled in Hindustan far and wide. He started his travel from Ahmedabad and Agra. Later on he travelled in Kashmir and Bengal. During Bengal journey he and Tavernier (John Tavernier a very well known and popular French traveller of 17h century) remained together upto royal palace. Staying for a short span of time at Qasim Bazar, he left for Masulipattnam and Golkonda and from there he reached back at Surat (Gujarat)

(ii) He remained in India for twelve years from 1656 to 1668.

The two women poet-saints of Tamil Nadu were Andal and Karraikkal Amaiyar.

Andal worshipped Vishnu and Karraikkal Amaiyar worshipped shiva.

According to Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land in the former. He was a firm believer in the virtues of private property, and saw crown ownership of land as being harmful for both the state and its people.

Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting, opportunities for those who had the necessary drive, resources and skills. They were densely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and invasions. The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but also the hub of social and cultural activities.

Indian cotton textiles were in great demand in West and South Asia. It is a correct historical fact. We can give following examples to prove our answer:

(i) Land and sea routes were used by merchants dealing in cotton textile connecting various countries of West and South Asia from India.

(ii) Arab traders used to come from West Asia and they were having monopoly on Indian trade before the arrival of European companies.

(iii) The Indian cotton textiles were in great demand in both West Asia and South-East Asia, fetching huge profits for weavers and artisans as well as for merchants.

(iv) Indian textile particularly cotton clothes, fine muslin, silks, brocade and satin, were in great demand. Ibn Buttuta informs us that certain varieties of fine muslin were so expansive that they could be worn only by the nobles and the very rich.

(i) Abdul Razzaq Samarqandi who came from Herat. He was a diplomat.

(ii) Al-Biruni who came from Uzbekistan.

(iii) Ibn Battuta who came from Morocco.

(iv) Francois Bernier who came from France.

Al-Biruni lived in Khwarizm in present day Uzbekistan. Ghazni’s Sultan Mahmud attacked Khwarizm in 1017 CE and took back many poets and scholors to Ghazni. Al-Biruni was one of them.

(i) Al-Biruni wrote in the Arabic language.

(ii) He adopted a critical approach in his writings. In each chapter, he began with a question. Then he gave a detailed description. He concluded with a comparison with other culture.

(i) Ibn Battuta loved travelling. He went to far-off places to explore new worlds and peoples.

(ii) He considered experience gained through travels to be a more important source of knowledge than the books.

Many travellers had come from vastly different social and cultural environments. So they were quite careful and attentive to everyday activities and practices. But the local authors took these things as a routine matter. They did not consider them as worthy of record. This difference in the perspectives of the foreign and local authors makes the account of travellers interesting.

The book written by Al-Biruni was entitled “Kitab-ul-Hind”. Al-Biruni adopted a distinct style in each chapter of the book. There is a question in the beginning. It is followed by a detailed description based on cultural traditions. In the end, this description is compared to other cultures.

Al-Biruni could have been easily understand in Morocco, Arabian countries, Pakistan, India, Cylone and Central as well as Western Asian countries.

Ibn Battuta returned home in 1354. Ibn Battuta took about 30 years total as a traveller after he had set out from Morocco.

Ibn Battuta’s book of travels, called Rihla, written in Arabic, provides extremely rich and interesting details about the social and cultural life of the subcontinent in the fourteenth century.

It literally means department. The royal household looked after a large number of Karkhanas or departments in which goods and articles needed by the king and the royal households were stored.

A state which is based on worldly or secular consideration is called Jahandari.

They are protected people who accepted the Muslim rule and agreed to pay tax called Jizyah. Generally in a fanatic Islamic state non-Muslims were called Zimmis.

Al-Biruni not know the Greek language. Even then he was familiar with the works of the Greek philosophers. He had read their translations in Arabic.

(i) He faced the problem of language. According to him, the Sanskrit language was so distinct from Arabic that it was very difficult to translate the ideas and principles of one language into another.

(ii) Another problem that he faced was that of tradition and religious system. He had to take the help of the Vedas and other Brahmana texts to comprehend these ideas and principles.

Women and men have travelled in search of work, to escape from natural disasters, as traders, merchants, soldiers, priests, pilgrims, or driven by a sense of adventure. Those who visit or come to stay in a new land invariably encounter a world that is different : in terms of the landscape or physical environment as well as customs, languages, beliefs and practices of people.

The name of the work written by Bernier is Travels in the Mughal Empire.

The description given by Bernier about Sati System:

He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die. Here we are quoting the description given by Bernier about the child sati at the time of his visit to India. According to several historians this is perhaps one of the most poignant descriptions by Bernier:

At Lahore, I saw a most beautiful young widow sacrificed, who could not, I think, have been more than twelve years of age. The poor little creature appeared more dead than alive

when she approached the dreadful pit. The agony of her mind cannot be described. She trembled and wept bitterly, but three or four of the Brahmanas, assisted by an old woman who held her under the arm, forced the unwilling victim towards the fatal spot, seated her on the wood, tied her hands and feet, lest she should run away, and in that situation the innocent creature was burnt alive. I found it difficult to repress my feelings and to prevent their bursting forth into clamorous and unavailing rage.

Name of the Al-Biruni’s book was Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic.

It is simple and lucid. It is a voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.

Generally (though not always), Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter, beginning with a question, following this up with a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other cultures. Some present-day scholars have argued that this almost geometric structure, remarkable for its precision and predictability.

Ibn Battuta was very surprised seen coconut in India first time.

The following is how Ibn Battuta described the coconut:

These trees are among the most peculiar trees in kind and most astonishing in habit. They look exactly like date-palms, without any difference between them except that the one produces nuts as its fruits and the other produces dates. The nut of a coconut tree resembles a man's head, for in it are what look like two eyes and a mouth, and the inside of it when it is green looks like the brain and attached to it is a fibre which looks like hair. They make from this cords with which they sew up ships instead of (using) iron nails, and they (also) make from it cables for vessels.

Francois Bernier, a Frenchman, was a doctor, political philosopher and historian. Like many others, he came to the Mughal Empire in search of opportunities. Bernier travelled to several parts of the country and wrote account of what he saw, frequently comparing what he saw in India with the situation in Europe.

The question of land ownership or landed property : (i) According to Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land in the former. He was a firm believer in the virtues of private property, and saw crown ownership of land as being harmful for both the state and its people.

As an extension of this, Bernier described Indian society as consisting of undifferentiated masses of impoverished people, subjugated by a small minority of a very rich and powerful ruling class.

(ii) Bernier’s descriptions influenced Western theorists from the eighteenth century onwards. The French philosopher Montesquieu, for instance, used this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism, according to which rulers in Asia (the Orient or the East) enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects, who were keptin conditions of subjugation and poverty, arguing that all land belonged to the king and that private property was non-existent.

As in the case of the question of landownership, Bernier was drawing an oversimplified picture. There were all kinds of towns : manufacturing towns, trading towns, port towng sacred centres, pilgrimage towns etc.

Al-Biruni had explained the caste system of India. He did not consider the unique as such social divisions were prevalent in ancient Persia. He accepted the Brahmanical description of the caste system. But he did not accept the notion of pollution. He stated that the state of impurity does not remain for ever. It soon regains its original condition of purity. The sun cleanses the air. The salt in the sea prevents the water from being polluted. But he finds social pollution as contrary to the laws of nature.

Thus we see that Al-Biruni’s description of the caste system was deeply influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit books and the views of Brahmans. However he did not find the system as rigid. For example, the categories like antyaja (born outside the system) provided inexpensive labour to both peasants and Zamindars. Though such classes were socially oppressed yet they were included in the economic network.

According to Bernier, the Mughal India did not have private ownership of land. He believed that private property had many virtues. But he regarded the crown ownership of land as harmful to both the state and its people. In the Mughal Empire, the emperor owned all the land. He distributed this land among his nobles. Bernier felt that this principle had disastrous consequences for the economy as well as society. Because of the crown ownership of land, the land holders could not pass on their land to their children. Besides they could not make any long-term investment to sustain and increase production. The crown ownership of land has also prevented the emergence of an improved class of landlords as in the Western Europe. It had ruined the agriculture. It had increased oppression of the peasantry. It brought a continuous decline in the living standard of all sections of society. That is why, Bernier considered crown ownership of land as disastrous.

Description of the Accounts of Ibn Battuta about Indian cities with special reference to Delhi:
Main architectural features of Delhi that Ibn Battuta had noted were:

(a) The rampart round the city of Delhi was without parallel. Inside the rampart, there were store houses for storing edibles, magazines, ammunition, ballistas and siege machines. The rampart was pierced through by windows which open on the side of the city and it was through these windows that light entered inside. The lower part of the rampart was built of stone : the upper part of bricks. It had many towers close to one other.

(b) Delhi had twenty eight gates of this city which were called darwazas.

(c) The city of Delhi had a fine cemetery in which graves had domes over them, and those that did not have a dome, had an arch for sure. In the cemetery they saw flowers such as tuberose, jasmine, wild rose, etc., and flowers blossom there in all seasons.

(d) According to account of Ibn Battuta, Delhi in fourteenth century had twenty-eight gates. These gates were called darwazas and of these Badaun darwaza was the greatest, inside the Mandwi darwaza there was a grain market, adjacent to the Gul darwaza there was an orchard.

Explain how Bernier and other contemporary European travellers and writers described the economic and social condition of Indian women.

(C.B.S.E., 2009 Foreign)

Ans. Contemporary European travellers and writers after highlighted the treatment of women as a crucial worker of difference between Western and Eastern societies. Not surprisingly Bernier chose the practice of sati for detailed description. However, women's lives revolved around much else besides the practice of sati. Their labour was crucial in both agricultural and non-agricultural production.

Women from merchant families participated in commercial activities, sometimes even taking mercantile disputes to the court of law. It therefore seems unlikely that women were confined to the private spaces of their homes.

1. Ibn Battuta had come to India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. He was a famous African traveller. He was born in Tangier on the 24th January, 1304. His real name was Adbulla Muhammad. He was very fond of travelling from his childhood. Passing through Sind, Multan and the Punjab he had reached Delhi. Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq extended a grand welcome to him at his court in Delhi. He spent about eight years in India.

2. Whatever he himself saw in the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq or felt or heard from people was described by him in his ‘Safarnama’. This travel account is also known as ‘Rihala of Ibn Battuta’ in history. The Sultan had appointed him as the Qazi. Since he did not know Indian languages, the Sultan had appointed two Qazis to help him.

3. His historical account is very detailed and important. In his account he has given a detailed description of the laws of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, various customs and institutions of contemporary Indian society.

4. As an impartial historian he describes the Sultan to be a cruel and blood-thirsty Sultan. He makes a favourable mention of the severe penal code and impartial justice of the Sultan. He has also praised the charity of the Sultan.

5. Ibn Battuta stayed in India from 1333 to 1341. His account is not totally devoid of faults. His account is doubtful on three grounds. Firstly, because he was ignorant of Indian languages himself, so he has mostly written in his book whatever he could follow. Secondly, he was not well acquainted with the geography of India so at many places he has described the routes and places incorrectly. Thirdly, he did not write his account while in India but after he went back to his own country.

(i) Travellers often compared what they saw in the subcontinent with practices with which they were familiar. Each traveller adopted distinct strategies to understand what they observed.

Al-Biruni, for instance, was aware of the problems inherent in the task he had set himself. He discussed several 'barriers' that he felt obstructed understanding. The first amongst these was language.

The second barrier he identified was the difference in religious beliefs and practices. The self-absorption and consequent insularity of the local population according to him, constituted the third barrier.

(ii) Al-Biruni’s description of the caste system : Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other societies. He noted that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognised : those of knights and princes, monks, fire-priests and lawyers, physicians, astronomers and other scientists, and finally, peasants and artisans.

In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system, Al-Biruni disapproved of the notion of pollution. He remarked that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity.

Al-Biruni’s description of the caste system was deeply influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit texts which laid down the rules governing the system from the point of view of the Brahmanas.

The prosperity of towns as has been explained by the historians on the basis of Ibn Battuta’s descriptions:
(i) While Ibn Battuta was not particularly concerned with explaining the prosperity of towns, historians have used his account to suggest that towns derived a significant portion of their wealth through the appropriation of surplus from villages. Ibn Battuta found Indian agriculture very productive because of the fertility of the soil, which allowed farmers to cultivate two crops a year. Even today most of the urban areas depend on surplus produce of rural areas. The farmers bring their surplus wheat, grams, barley, vegetables, fruits for sale in the urban markets.
(ii) Ibn Battuta noted that the Indian subcontinent was well integrated with inter-Asian networks of trade and commerce, with Indian manufactures being in great demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia, fetching huge profits for artisans and merchants. Indian textiles, particularly cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade and satin, were in great demand. Ibn Battuta informs us that certain varieties of fine muslin were so expensive that they could be worn only by the nobles and the very rich.
(iii) The state evidently took special measures to encourage merchants. Almost all trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses. Ibn Battuta was also amazed by the efficiency of the postal system which allowed merchants to not only send information and remit credit across long distances, but also to dispatch goods required at short notice. The postal system was so efficient that while it took fifty days to reach Delhi from Sind, the news reports of spies would reach the Sultan through the postal system in just five days.

(i) Medieval society was a society of “great inequalities.” This was reflected in the Muslim society even more than in the Hindu, the latter being predominantly rural where inequalities were less marked.
(ii) In towns the Muslim nobility led a life of great ostentation. Some of the wealthy merchants, Hindu and Muslim, also led lives of ostentation. The great mass of people, in towns as well as in the countryside, lived a simple life, and often had to face many hardships. It was however, not a life without joy, as numerous festivals, fairs etc. relieved to some extent, the monotony of their lives.
(iii) Level of income of the people belonging to different sections, classes and castes of the society was having surprising disparities and inequalities.
(iv) The use of food stuff, vegetables, fruits, milk, ghee, good quality garments, ornaments, households, furniture, means of transport etc was definitely indicated that there was great ineqnalities in medieval society of India.

(i) In the political and economic fields, the most important development was the political integration of the country brought about by the Turks and later consolidated by the Mughals.

(ii) Although the Turkish and Mughal system of administration remained largely confined to northern India, and directly it affected other parts of India also.

(iii) The institution of a well-minted currency based on silver, the development of roads and sarais and the preference for city life had a direct effect on the growth of trade and handicrafts which reached its climax during the seventeenth century.

(iv) The ruling class remained strongly aristocratic in character, with only limited opportunities of career being open to the people of talent from lower classes.

The Achievements of the Gajapati rulers:

(i) The Gajapati rule mark a brilliant phase in Orissa’s history.

(ii) Gajapati rulers were great builders and warriors.

(iii) The Gajpati rulers were mainly instrumental in extending their rule in the south towards Karnataka. As we have seen, this brought them into conflict with Vijayanagara, the Reddis and Bahmani Sultans.

(iv) Perhaps, one reason why the Gajapati rulers preferred arrangement in the south was their feeling that the Sultans of Bengal were too strong to be easily dislodge from the Bengal-Orissa border. But the Orissa's rulers could not hold on to their southern conquests for any length of time due to the power and capabilities of the Vijayanagara and Bahmani rulers.

These are following factors should be kept in mind by the historians while handling testual traditions.

(i) Different types of men and women for different purposes visited India during our period of studies in India. Unfortunately we find very least description left by women travellers or writers. Most of the text material is provided by male travellers and authors. Naturally taste, attitude and outlook of writers belonging to both gender is generally different.

(ii) The accounts that survive are often varied in terms of their subject matter. Some deal with affairs of the court, while others are mainly focused on religious issues, or architectural features and monuments.

(iii) In a few cases, travellers did not go to distant lands. For example, in the Mughal Empire administrators sometimes travelled within the empire and recorded their observations. Some of them were interested in looking at popular customs and the folklore and traditions of their own land.

(iv) We shall see how our knowledge of the past can be enriched through a consideration of descriptions of social life provided by travellers who visited the subcontinent, focusing on the accounts of three men : Al-Biruni who came from Uzbekistan (eleventh century), Ibn Battuta who came from Morocco, in north-western Africa (fourteenth century) and the Frenchman Francois Bernier (seventeenth century).

(v) As these authors came from vastly different social and cultural environments, they were often more attentive to everyday activities and practices which were taken for granted by indigenous writers, for whom these were routine matters, not worthy of being recorded. It is this difference in perspective that makes the accounts of travellers interesting.

I. The Kitab-ul-Hind : Al-Biruni's Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic, is simple and lucid. It is a voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology. II. Al-Biruni’s description of India 1. Political Condition : It is clear from Al-Biruni's account that the country was divided into many small parts at that time. More famous among them being Kannauj, Kashmir, Sind, Malwa, Gujarat and Bengal. In the south also there were many small kingdoms in India. All these kingdoms were independent, jealous of each other and were constantly engaged in quarrels against one another. About the Indian judicial system he writes that criminal law was mild in India and the Brahmins were exempted from death punishment. The limbs of serious offenders were amputated. The judges dispensed justice on the basis of the evidence of the witnesses. Punishment was given according to the cost of the theft committed. About the land system and taxation Al-Biruni mentions that the king was not the owner of the land. He took only the land tax. The king took from the peasants l/6th of the produce as tax but the Brahmins were exempted even from this tax.

2. Social Condition : Al-Biruni writes that contemporary Indian society was ridden with the rigid caste system. The country was suffering from many evil practices of child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, Sati and Jauhar. There was no feeling of unity and equality in Indian society. In this Tehkikat-I-Hind he mentions about the narrow outlook of Indians saying that Hindus are of the belief that there is no country like India, no king like theirs and no science like theirs. The caste system has reached its peak during the time of Mahmud’s invasions. Al-Biruni mentions that in the society only brahmins had the right to attain salvation. Apart from getting his posts, Brahmins were exempted from payment of taxes.

3. Religious Conditions : Al-Biruni account tells us that time idol worship was prevalent in the country and there was lots of wealth in the temples. Common people believed in many Gods but the scholars and educated people believed in the unity of God head. Al-Biruni writes about this that the Hindus believed in one God which is permanent, all powerful and all pervading.

4. Indian Philosophy : Al-Biruni has unreservedly praised Indian philosophy. He was specially impressed by the Upanishads and the spiritual philosophy propounded in the Bhagwadgita. But he also mentioned that Indians did not evince much taste for writing chronological history. According to him the Indians know very little about the chronology of historical events and if pressed too much, they start narrating stories. He also points out towards the fact that Indians do not give much importance to the exchange of knowledge. He writes, 'Hindus are very miserly in giving their knowledge with great difficulty even amongst their own community what to talk of foreigners.”

Ibn-Battuta had no interest in describing the prosperity of the cities. But the historians have used his description to argue that the prosperity of the cities depended on agricultural economy of the villages. According to Ibn-Battuta, Indians agriculture was quite productive. Its reasons was the fertility of the land. It eas easy for the farmers to grow crops in a year. Ibn-battuta also saw that the subcontinent was part of a global network of communication. The Indians goods were in great demand in Central and South East Asia. It was profitable to both artisans and merchants. There was a great demand in India for cotton cloths, soft muslin, silk brocade and satin. Ibn-Battuya tells is that some kinds of mislin were so costly that only the rich could afford to buy them.

In other words, the coties of the subcontinent provided exciting opportunities to those who had necessary drive, skill and resources. All the cities had colourful markets having a wide variety of goods. The bazaars were the main places of economic transactions. They intgrated with inter-Asian networks at trade and commerce.

Francois Bernier had written a book entitled 'Travels In the Mughal Empire.' He considered the Mughal rule as inferior to that of Europe. During the Mughal rule, the Indians society had masses of impoverished people. The rich and powerful people were in a minority. There were poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich. There was no middle class in India. This is how Bernier described India during the Mughal rule. The Mughal king was the king of beggars and barbarians. All the cities and towns were in shambles. They contaminated with polluted air. All the fields were full of bushes and marishes. This was no because of the crown ownership of land.

However there was Mughal official document to show that the state was the sole owner of land. For example, Abul Fazl, the official chronicler of Akbar in the 16th century, describes the land revenue as “ remunerations of sovereignty”. Many European travellers believed that the king claimed revenue as he provided protection to his subjects. He did not take any rent on land as many scholars believe. In reality, it was neither a rent nor a land tax. It was in fact a tax on the crop.

(i) Most of the foreign travellers had come from diverse social environment. The local writers remained indifferent towards them. They compared the Indian environment and social scenario with outside world.

(ii) Their descriptions throw light on the contemporary proceedings of the royal court, religious beliefs and the features of architecture and scrulpture. It helps in the writing of history.
Some of the important Foreign Travellers:
(a) Bernier : (i) Bernier wrote a book entitled, “Travels in Mughal Empire.

(ii) Like the books of Al-Biruni and Ibn-Battuta, the books of Bernier is a gist of his experiences.

(iii) He especially compared the condtion of India with that of Europe. He found the life of the people of India as wrost in comparison to the life found in Europe.

(iv) In all descriptions, he criticises the control of state over all the land. He considers it responsible for the miserable condition of the Indian agriculture and the farmers.

(b) Ibn-Battuta : (i) IbOnBattuta wrote a book entitled ‘Rihala’. In this book, he declineated a beautiful picture of his experiences that he had gathered during his various visits and travels. From his book, we come to know a lot about various aspects of social values and new culture.

(ii) Ibn-Battuta found paan and coconut very strange. So he made a special mention of them.

(iii) He also wrote about the cities of India and an efficient postal system.

(c) Al-Biruni : (i) The detailed description by Al-Biruni is found in his “Kitab-ul-Hind' which provides important about the contemporary religion, philosophy and science. His description is very simple and straight-forward.

(ii) Al-Biruni explained that the caste system was not only the characteristic of the Indian society but also of many other societies of the world. In other words, the caste system was prevalent in many countries of the world.

1. Ibn Battuta was swayed by an overmastering impulse within him and a desire long-cherished in his bosom to visit several fine places and countries. He considered experience gained through travels to be a more important source of knowledge than books. He just loved travelling and went to far-off places, exploring new worlds and peoples.

2. Before Ibn Battuta set off for India in 1332-33, he had made pilgrimage trips to Mecca, and had already travelled extensively in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman and a few trading ports on the coast of East Africa. After coming India he proceed to China (in 1342) as the Sultan's envoy to the Monglol ruler. With the new assignment Ibn Battuta proceeded to the Malabar coast through Central India. From Malabar he went to the Maldives and later on decided to proceed to Sri Lanka.

3. Ibn Battuta found travelling arducus in India due to following reasons :

(a) He was travelling in the 14th century, When it was much more arduous and hazardous to travel than it is today. According to Ibn Battuta, it took forty days to travel from Multan to Delhi and about fifty days from Sind to Delhi. The distance from Daultabad to Delhi was cove red in forty days, while that from Gwalior to Delhi took ten days.

(b) Robbers were not the only hazard on long journeys, the travellers could feel homesick or fall ill. He was attacked by the fever during his journey.

4. (a) Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities for those who had the necessary d rive, resources and skills. They were den sely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and invasions.

(b) It appears from Ibn Battuta’s account that most cities had crowded streets and bright and colourful markets that were stacked with a wide variety of goods.

1. According to Bernier the land was a little more than sand, or barren mountains, badly cultivated and thinly populated.

2. The peasantry abandoned the land because of the bad treatment they experienced from Governors. The poor people, when they became incapable of discharing the demand of their lords, driven to despair by excessive tyranny, abandon the country.

3. The reason for the exploitation of the peasants was not meeting the demands of the lords, so they were deprived of not only the means of subsistence but also made to lose their children, who were carried away their slaves.

4. Bernier was participating in contemporary debates in Europe concerning the nature of state and society, and intended that his description of Mughal India would serve as a warning to those who did not recognise the “merits” of private property.

Al-Biruni’s account of the System of Varnas:

(i) According to Bernier Varna system consists of mainly four castes or classes viz Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Former two were privileged castes and latter were served the society.

(ii) No, I don't consider this type of division to be justified because:

(a) It results inequality, religious fights and which ultimately break the peace of the country.

(b) There should be no discrimination on the basis of caste, creed and religion.

(iii) The system is not quite rigid in the real life as between the Vaishyas and Shudras there is no very great distance. Much, however as these classes differ from each other, they live together in the same towns and villages, mixed together in the same houses and lodgings.

(i) Ibn Battuta had described several cities of the Indian sub-continent which were visited by him. He found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities for those who had the necessary drive, resources and skills. Ibn Buttuta mentioned that in these cities there were densely population. The people were very prosperous but sometimes most of the cities are disturbed and a lot of destruction of men and property was caused by wars and invaders.

According to him most cities in the subcontinent had crowded streets and bright and colourful markets. That were stacked with wide variety of goods.

(ii) According to Ibn Buttuta that Delhi was a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India. This city was having rivalry with a prominant city of South India named Daulatabad (in Maharashtra) because Daulatabad was more less and no less in Delhi as far as size and glamour of the city was concern.

According to Ibn Buttata the rampart round Delhi is without parallel. The breadth of its wall is eleven cubits, and inside it are houses for the night sentry and gatekeepers. Inside the ramparts, there are store houses for storing edibles, magazines, ammunition, ballistas and siege machines. There is a grain market, orchard and fine cemetery in which graves have domes over them.

(iii) We can mentioned the following major changes in Delhi of today :

(a) Delhi has been working as capital city of whole India and its total area is more wide and large in population than the visiting time of Ibn Battuta.

(b) The city is not encircled by a great thick wall like of medieval age. Infact modern Delhi is divided into two major parts popularly known as Old Delhi and New Delhi.

(c) Delhi is having very ultramodern markets like Connaught Place, Karol Bagh, Kamla Nagar, Chandni Chowk and so on. There are a grand Palace or building for head of the State of India i.e. The President. There are numerous important government buildings such as the Parliament and the Supreme Court etc.

(i) At Lahore Bernier saw a most beautiful young widow sacrificed, who could not, he thought, have been more than twelve years of age. The poor little creature appeared more dead than alive when she approached the dreadful pit.

(ii) The agony of girl mind could not be described by Bernier. She trembled and wept bitterly; but three or four of the Brahmanas assisted by an old woman who held her under the arm, forced the unwilling victim toward the fatal spot, seated her on the wood, tied her hands and feet, lest she should run away.

(iii) The girl was forced by some people to pyre which was to put on fire. The girl was burnt alive. She went there helplessly. According to Bernier while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die.

(i) Coconut is used to obtained fruit, oil and fibre. Its fibre look like hair make cords with which people sew ships. In place of using iron nails people also make cables for coconut fibre for vessels. Some people prepare carpets of coconut fibre.

(ii) The nut of a coconut tree resembles a man's head for in it are what look like two eyes and a mouth, and the inside of it when it is green looks like the brain,

and attached to it is a fibre which looks like hair.

(iii) The coconut produces nut as the fruit and palm tree produces date.

(iv) I don’t agree with the explanation given by Ibn Battuta fully because he does not know complete knowledge about the trees of dates and coconut. No doubt his some point of description are correct but coconut is used by people of our country in several other ways. For example some people use it in temple at the time of worship. Some people use coconut in food. For example in south India several diets are prepared with coconut.

(16.1) Bernier considered this treatment as a crucial marker of difference between western and eastern society because-

(i)Women received education in the west but in the eastern society there was no education and many social evils like sati , purdah system and child marriages existed.

(ii)Eastern societies were male dominated unlike the western

(16.2) While some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die.

(16.3) In medieval era women had no rights but today sati , slavery has been prohibited. There is women empowerment with economic and political rights.

(15.1) Because it was densely populated, prosperous and the largest in India.

 (15.2) To protect Delhi many towers were erected close to one another and eight gates were built which was known as darwaza.

 (15.3) The city of Delhi had fine cemetery in which graves have domes over them and those that did not have dome had arch. In the cemetery flowers such as tuberose, jasmine and wild rose were sown which blossomed in all seasons. This impressed Battuta.
                                                                         Or

(15.1) The responsibilities of king:

(i) A king should improve the harbours of his country and so encourage its commerce.

 (ii) He should arrange that the foreign sailors are ill and exhausted are looked after in a suitable manner.

 (iii) Foreign merchants should be provided with daily audiences, presented and allowed decent profits.

 (15.2) By remaining in constant state of military preparedness.

 (15.3) Built water resources, fortified palaces build roads and carried out irrigation works.

Bernier’s descriptions influenced Western theorists from the eighteenth century onwards.

(i) The French philosopher Montesquieu, for instance, used this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism, according to which rulers in Asia (the Orient or the East) enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects.

(ii) They were kept in conditions of subjugation and poverty, arguing that all land belonged to the king and that private property was non-existent.

(iii) This idea was further developed as the concept of the Asiatic mode of production by Karl Marx in the nineteenth century.

(iv) He argued that in India (and other Asian countries), before colonialism, surplus was appropriated by the state.

(v) This led to the emergence of a society that was composed of a large number of autonomous and (internally) egalitarian village communities.

(1) Two scriptures in which Kabir’s verses are compiled include Kabir Bijak and Kabir Granthavali.

(2) Kabir’s description:

(i) There is only one God in the world. He is known by many names.

(ii) He condemned any kind of rituals or sacrifices.

(3) Kabir argued against the lords of the world of different communities in the following manner:

(a) All religious distinctions are man-made

(b) There is only one God

(c) He is known as Ram, Rahim, Allah …… etc.

(d) He says that religions emphasize on unnecessary rituals and keep fighting with each other.

(4) I agree with Kabir. I also believe that there is only one God and that rituals should be discarded.
                                                                              OR

(1) Bernier warns the European kings about the consequences that can come about if the Mughal model is followed. They would end up as kings of beggars and barbarians …… etc.

(2) According to Abul Fazl, Land revenue was a remuneration of sovereignty for the protection that Mughal ruler provided to his subject and not a rent.

(a) Land revenue was not even a land tax and it was a tax on the crop.

(b) Bernier portrayed India under Mughal rule in a negative light, while the Mughal records show that trade flourished and Indian crafts were in great demand.

(3) Bernier suggested that:

(i) The kings of Europe were royally served and were rich and powerful.

(ii) They should not follow the example of Mughal rulers and become rulers of deserts, beggars and barbarians…etc

The reason:

He felt that the artisans had no incentives to improve the quality of manufactures, since profits were appropriated by the state.

The two earliest Bhakti Movements of the Tamil Nadu were:

(i) Alvars

(ii) Nayanars

Difference:

(i) The Alvars worshipped Vishnu.

(ii) The Nayanars worshipped Shiva. 

(1) Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities for those who had the necessary drive, resources and skills. They were densely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and invasions.

(2) Ibn Battuta described Delhi as a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India. The city of Dehli covers a wide area and has a large population ... The rampart round the city is without parallel. The breadth of its wall is eleven cubits; and inside it are houses for the night sentry and gatekeepers. Inside the ramparts, there are store-houses for storing edibles, magazines, ammunition, ballistas and siege machines. There are twenty eight gates of this city which are called darwaza, and of these, the Budaun darwaza is the greatest; inside the Mandwi darwaza there is a grain market; adjacent to the Gul darwaza there is an orchard ... the city of Dehli has a fine cemetery in which graves have domes over them, and those that do not have a dome, have an arch, for sure. In the cemetery they sow flowers such as tuberose, jasmine, wild rose, etc.; and flowers blossom there in all seasons.

(3) The four changes:

(i) It is now the National Capital Territory

(ii) The city houses Parliament

(iii) Modern mode of transport are seen on roads

(iv) High rises building have been built.
                                                                               OR

(1) Of the vast tracts of country constituting the empire of Hindustan, many are little more than sand, or barren mountains, badly cultivated, and thinly populated.

(2) Even a considerable portion of the good land remains untilled for want of labourers; many of whom perish in consequence of the bad treatment they experience from Governors.

(3) The poor people, when they become incapable of discharging the demands of their rapacious lords, are not only often deprived of the means of subsistence, but are also made to lose their children, who are carried away as slaves. Thus, it happens that the peasantry, driven to despair by so excessive a tyranny, abandon the country.

Problems faced by Al-Biruni in understanding India:

i. He could not understand Sanskrit language and found it difficult to translate Sanskrit into Arabic and Persian.

ii. Could not understand the difference in religious beliefs and practices and self-absorption of Brahmanas local population

He depended on Brahmanical works like

i. Vedas and Puranas

ii. Bhagavadgita and Manusmriti/Dharmasastras

The examples-
(i) They supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions by making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva.

(ii) The most magnificent Shiva temples, including those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram were constructed by them and representation of Shiva in bronze sculpture were also produced.

(16.1) They were created from the head of Brahman and the Brahman, only another name for the force called nature.
(16.2) Al Biruni remarked that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity. The conception of social pollution, intrinsic to the caste system, was according to him, contrary to the laws of nature.
(16.3) In real life the system was not quite as rigid.
(i) The categories defined as antyaja, born outside the system, were often expected to provide inexpensive labour to both peasants and zamindars. While they were often subjected to social oppression, they were included within economic networks.
(ii) Kshatriya were created from the shoulders and hands of Brahman, vaishya from the thigh of Brahman and vaishya from the feet. There was no very great distance, however all the classes differ from each other.They all lived in the same town and villages and mixed together in the same houses and lodgings.

Bernier’s idea of Crown ownership in Mughal India:
(i) He believed in the virtues of Private Property.
(ii) He saw crown ownership of land as being harmful for both the state and the people.
(iii) Land holders could not pass on their land to their children
(iv) They were averse to long term investment expansion of production.
(v) The absence of Private property prevented the emergence of class of improving landlords.
(vi) It had led to uniform ruination of agriculture.
(vii) Excessive oppression of the peasantry and decline in the standard of living.
(viii) He warned that if European kings followed the Mughal model their kingdoms would be very far from being well cultivated and peopled.
(ix) It has led to impoverishment of the peasantry.
(x) There was no middle state in India.
(xi) He saw the Mughal Emperors as the “king of the Beggars and the Barbarians”.
(xii) He considered revenue as the rent because land revenue demands were often very high.

(ANY TWO)