Themes In Indian History Ii Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions

Meaning of integration of cults:

(i)    From tenth to seventeenth century the most striking religious features is the increasing visibility of a wide range of god and goddess in sculpture as well as in religious books (texts) at one level, this indicates the continued and extended worship of major deities-Vishnu, Shiva and goddesses like Durga, Laxmi or Parvati-each of whom was visualised in a variety of forms.

(ii)    Historians who have tried to understand these developments suggest that there were at least two processes at work. One was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. This is exemplified by the composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to be accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning. At the same time, there was a second process at work - that of the Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories. In fact, many beliefs and practices were shaped through a continuous dialogue between what sociologists have described as “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” traditions throughout the land.

Example 1 : One of the most striking examples of this process is evident at Puri, Orissa, where the principal deity was identified, by the twelfth century, as Jagannatha (literally, the lord of the world), a form of Vishnu.

Example 2 : Through an instance we can say that a local deity whose image was continues to be made of wood by local tribal specialists, was recognised as a form of Vishnu. At the same time, Vishnu was visualised in a way that was very different from that in other parts of the country.

Such instances of integration are evident amongst goddess cults as well. Worship of the goddess, often simply in the form of a stone smeared with ochre, was evidently widespread.

Reflection of combination of universal ideals and local traditions in the architecture of mosques:

(i) The complex blend of a universal faith with local traditions is perhaps best exemplified in the architecture of mosques. Some architectural features of mosques are universal - such as their orientation towards Mecca, evident in the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). However, there are several features that show variations - such as roofs and building materials.

Atiya Mosque, Mymensingh district, Bangladesh, built with brick in 1609

A mosque in Kerala, c. thirteenth century (Note the shikhara-like roof)

The Shah Hamadan Mosque built in 1395 in Srinagar (Kashmir).

(ii) For Example, a mosque was built in Kerala in the 13th century. Its roof resembled the Shikhar of the temple. Centrary to it, the roof of Atia Mosque in Bangladesh is round. The Atia Mosque was made of bricks. However the Kashmiri wood has been used in Shah Hamdan Mosque built in Srinagar.

Meaning of Sharia:

(i)    The sharia is the law governing the Muslim community. It is based on the Quran and the Hadis, traditions of the Prophet including a record of his remembered words and deeds.

(ii)    Some mystics initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of sufi ideals. Many scorned the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism. Because of their deliberate defiance of the sharia they were often referred to as be-sharia, in contrast to the ba-sharia sufis who complied with it.

(iii)    A group of religious minded people called sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the caliphate as a religious and political institution. The sufis sought an interpretation of the Quran on the basis of their personal experience. The sufis traditions which were anti-sharia (or the law governing the Muslim community) are called be-sharia while the tradition of Sufi which are pro-sharia (are called ba-sharia).

Similarities : Both of Sufi traditions are critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpretation of the Quran and sunna (traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians. Instead, they laid stress on seeking salvation.

In this way we can say that both the traditions of the sufis i.e. be-sharia and ba-sharia are same. They sought and interpret the Quran on the basis of personal experience.

Meaning of Alvars and Nayanars : Some of the earliest Bhati movements(C. sixth century) were led by Alvars (literally meaning of this word is those who are emerged in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (literally meaning of this word is those leaders who were devotees of lord Shiva). The Alvars and Nayanars travelled place to place singing hymns in Tamil (in praise of their god).

Attitude of Alvars and Nayanars towards caste system : Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. To some extent this is corroborated by the fact that bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”.

Meaning of Virashaiva : The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68) who was initially a Jaina and a minister in the court of a Chalukya king. His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).

Attitude of Virashaivas towards caste system : The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth. These won them followers amongst those who were marginalised within the Brahmanical social order. The Lingayats also encoviraged certain practices disapproved in the Dhanmashastras, such as post puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.

Kabir had an important place in the poet-saints. His teachings are as follows:

(i)    He described the ultimate reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also used terms like aulakh (the unseen) and nirakar (the formless). These words.were drawn from Vedantic traditions.

(ii)    He repudiated idol-worship and polytheism.

(iii) He emphasised the Sufi concept of zikr and ishq (love) to express the Hindu practices of nam-simaran (remembrance of God’s name).

(iv)    He believed that God was one though his names are different.

(v)    He referred to God as formless.

(vi)    He stated that salvation can be attained through Bhakti.

(vii)    He opposed the religious rituals of both the Hindus and the Muslims.

(viii)    He was against caste discriminations.

Expression of views

Kabir expressed his views in the language that was spoken and understood by the common people. After his death, the followers spread his views through various means of communication.

Guru Nanak Dev Ji and his teachings : Baba Guru Nanak was born in 1469, at Nankana Sahib near the river Ravi. This place is now in Pakistan. He was bom in a Hindu family. He learnt Persian, Arabic, Hindi and Mathematics. Me travelled widely. He spent most of his time in the company of Sufi saints and Bhaktas. His main teachings are as follows :

(i) He advocated nirguna bhakti. He firmly repudiated and rejected the religious practices like sacrifices, ritual baths, idol worship and austerities.

(ii) He rejected the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.

(iii) He stated that the Almighty or rub had no gender or form.

(iv) He proposed that all his followers should connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine name.

In fact, Guru Nanak Dev expressed his ideas through hymns called “shabads”. He expressed all his views in Punjabi, the language of the region. He recited his “shabads” in various ragas.

Major beliefs and practices of Sufism : In the early centuries of Islam, a group of religous minded people turned to asceticism and mysticism. They were called as Sufis. Major beliefs and practices of Sufism are given below:

(i)    Sufis criticised the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Quran and Sunna (traditions of the Prophet) given by theologians. Sufis thus interpreted the Quran on the basis of their personal experiences.

(ii)    They gave emphasis on seeking salvation through great devotion and bhakti of God.

(iii)    They regarded Prophet Muhammad as a perfect human being and preached to follow the Prophet Muhammad.

(iv)    They were in favour of zikr, sama, singing, dance and training of mind, through different methods under the guidance of any Auliya or Pir.

(v)    They gave stress on mendicancy and celibacy. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism.

(vi)    They used to go for ziyarat, to tombs of Sufi saints. Music and dance were also parts of ziyarat. The Sufis remember God either by reciting the Divine Names or evoking his presence through sama or performance of mystical music. Sama was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.

(vii)    According to Sufis God is one and is all-powerful. Every one is his creation. That’s why all are equal.

(viii)    According to Sufism service of mankind and needy people is as equal to the devotion of God. That’s why a common kitchen (langar) was being run in Khanqah of Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia which was being run on ‘futuh’ (unasked for charity). From morning till late night this kitchen was being run to provide food for all sections of society.

(ix)    A major feature of Sufism was austerity including maintaining a distance from worldly power.

One of the major themes in Tamil bhakti hymns is the poet’s opposition to Buddhism and Jainism. This is particularly marked in the compositions of the Nayanars. Historians have attempted to explain this hostility by suggesting that it was due to competition between members of other religious traditions for royal patronage.

(ii) What is evident is that the powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva.

(iii) In fact, some of the most magnificent Shiva temples, including those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, were constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers.

(iv) This was also the period when some of the most spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture were produced. Clearly, the visions of the Nayanars inspired artists.

(v) Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the Vellala peasants. Not surprisingly, rulers tried to win their support as well. The Chola kings, for instance, often attempted to claim

divine support and proclaim their own power and status by building splendid temples that were adorned with stone and metal sculpture to recreate the visions of these popular saints who sang in the language of the people.

II. How and why rulers (state) made efforts to establish connection with tradition of Sufis :

1.    Sufi Saints and Sultans : The Sultans knew that most of his people belonged to Islam. So when the turks established the Delhi Sultanate, they rejected the demand of Ulema to introduce Sharia. They did so to avoid any kind of opposition from their people who were mainly non-Muslims. So they took the help of Sufi saints who considered their spiritual authority as the blessing of Allah.

Some People believed that the Auliya could intercede with God in order to improve the metarial and spiritual conditions of the common people. That is why, the kings often wanted to have their tombs in he vicinity of the Sufi shrines. They used to visit the dargahs of Sufi saints. The king who first visitied the dargah of Shaik Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer was Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1324-51). However the first monument on the tomb of Shaikh was got built by King Giasuddin Khalji in the fifteenth century. As this dargah was on the road that linked Delhi with Gujarat, it was visited by many travellers.

2.    Sufi Saints and Mughal Emperor Akbar : The dargah at Ajmer had become quite popular in the 16th century. The devotional hymns of those travellers who visited this dargah over the years inspired the Emperor Akbar to visit this shrine. Akbar came to this dargah fourteen times. Sometimes he visited this dargah to seek blessings for new victory and sometimes he came to seek the fulfilment of his desires. He also visited this holy place on the birthday of his son. He donated a lot on all such occasions. For example in 1568, he donated a big cauldron (degh) so that food may be prepared for all the pilgrims. e also got built a mosque in the compound of the dargah.

The Bhakti and Sufi thinkers used the languages of the common people to expressh their opinions. They often spoke in local languages. So they were well-understood by the common people. Had they used a few distinct languages, they would not have reached to all the people. They would have gone extinct. Hence their use of the local languages proved very significant.

(i) Sanskrit was used by traditional Bhakti saints to sing hymns at different occasions, places of worship and ceremonies.

(ii) The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their Gods. These developed as centres of pilgrimage. Singing compositions of these poet-saints became part of temple rituals in these shrines, as did worship of the saint images.

(iii) Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects, and some are composed in the special language of nirguna poets, the sant bhasha. Others, known as ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), are written in a form in which everyday meanings are inverted.

(iv)    Baba Guru Nanak, Baba Farid, Ravidas (Raidas), composed their hymns in various languages such as Punjabi and Hindi etc.

(v)    Amir Khusrau wrote and sang in Hindavi or Persian, Punjabi, Urdu and some other form oflanguages.

(vi)    It was not just in sama that the Chishtis adopted local languages. In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti Silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people. Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local languages, which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.

(vii)    Other writers, thinkers, saints etc. composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory. For example, the prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor. Their trials were symbolic of the soul’s journey to the divine. Such poetic compositions were often recited in hospices, usually during sama.

(viii) The poets of Bigapur and Karnatana wrote short poems in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu.

Social and religious ideas expressed in different historical sources:

(i)    Different types of religious structures are stupas, monasteries, temples etc. If these typified certain religious beliefs and practices, others have been reconstructed from textual traditions, including the Puranas, many of which received their present shape around the same time, and yet other remain only faintly visible in textual and visual records.

(ii)    New textual sources available from this period include compositions attributed to poet-saints, most of whom expressed themselves orally in regional languages used by ordinary people. These compositions, which were often set to music, were compiled by disciples or devotees, generally after the death of the poet-saint.

(iii)    What is more, these traditions were fluid-generations of devotees tended to elaborate on the original message, and occasionally modified or  even abandoned some of the ideas that appeared problematic or irrelevant in different political, social or cultural contexts. Using these sources thus poses a challenge to historians.

(iv)    Historians also draw on hagiographies or biographies of saints written by their followers (or members of their religious sect). These may not be literally accurate,but allow a glimpse into the ways in which devotees perceived the lives of these path breaking women and men.

(v) In the course of the evolution of these forms of worship, in many instances, poet-saints emerged as leaders around whom there developed a community of devotees. Further, while Brahmanas remained important intermediaries between gods and devotees in several forms of bhakti, these traditions also accommodated and acknowledged women and the “lower castes”, categories considered ineligible for liberation within the orthodox Brahmanical framework.

(vi) The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68) who was initially a Jaina and a minister in the court of a Chalukya king. His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga). Lingayats continue to be an important community in the region to date.

1. Namadeva : Great saint of Maharashtra Namadeva was also one of the prominent leaders of Bhakti movement. He was a poet of high class.

Life of Namadeva : Namadeva was bom at a place named Pandharpur in Maharashtra on 29 October, 1270 AD. His mother’s name was Gonai and father’s name was Dana Seth. His father was a tailor by profession. His parents were devotees of Bitthal Swami. He, therefore, also became a staunch devotee of Bitthal Swami. Namadeva was married to a girl named Rajbai. He was blessed with four sons and a daughter.

Namadeva made a famous saint named Bisoba Khechar as his teacher (guru). It was only due to his favour that Namadeva became a great saint. He has sung the praise of his guru in his songs (abhangas). Namadeva had great regard for Gyaneshwar, a famous saint of Maharashtra. With him, he toured almost the whole of the country. After the death of saint Gyaneshwar, Namadeva stayed in Punjab and preached among the people making Gurdaspur as his centre for preaching.

During the last days of his life, Namadeva had returned to Pandharpur. It was here that he died in 1350 AD at the age of 80 years.

Teachings of Namadeva :

1.    God is one. He is all powerful and omnipresent. In his own words, “God exists in this world, God is in the next world, there is no part of the world, where God is not present.

2.    Everyone should be dedicated to God. Namadeva believed that devotion to God is the true support of life. Life is useless without it.

3.    Caste and outwardly rituals are useless. In the words of Namadeva,“Cows are of different complexions, but their milk is of the same colour. How you are brahmin and we are shudras!”

4.    Human life is mortal. Namadeva’s saying was-a bird sits on a tree and then fly away. Similarly, a man comes in the world and goes away.

2. Chaitanya : Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the person imitating the whole Bengal and northern India with Bhakti, was a great saint of Medieval India. He propagated Krishna Bhakti in the whole of northern India. He was born at a place named Nadia in West Bengal in 1486 AD. Vishambar was his childhood name. His father’s name was Jagan Nath Misra and Shanchi Devi was his mother.

V i s h ambhar received education in a Sanskrit school. After that, he opened a pathshala. Attracted towards his intellect and knowledge, the students joined his pathshala. Vishambhar wanted to be away from worldly bondage. But, on the insistence of his parents, he had to marry twice. But still he was not involved in worldly bondage.

Chaitanya

When he went to Gaya at the age of 22 years for performing shradha of his mother, he met there Mahatma Ishwar Puri who told him to secret of Krishna Bhakti. Now Vishambhar forgot everything being last in Krishna Bhakti. At the age of 25 years, he was initiated into the Krishna cult by a recluse named Bhakti and renounced the world. Now he was called Krishna Chaitanya.

Chaitanya visits to different parts of India. In southern India, he went to Puri, Shringeri and Pandharpur etc. holy places. After it passing through Kashi, Prayag and Mathura, he reached Brindaban.

After it, he went to Puri and kept propagating for the religion there. Here he died in 1533 AD.

Teachings: Chaitanya was a great reformer of Bhakti movement. He stressed upon devotion more than knowledge. He condemned caste-restrictions and the distinction of high and low. All are equal in his eyes. His statement was that there is no place for caste distinctions in devotion to Krishna. While sending his two disciples to Bengal for propagating Krishna Bhakti, Mahaprabhu Chaitanya had instructed them, “Preach Krishna-Bhakti even among Chandals and teach the lesson of devotion and love to all human beings without partiality,” thus, for Chaitanya, the Hindus, the Muslims, Brahmanas and Shudras-all were equal. The people of all communities, therefore, became his disciples. His most beloved disciple,Haridas,was a Muslim in the beginning. Chaitanya taught his pupils to avoid contact with women. His saying was that one should not sit in isolation even with mother, sister and daughter.

Students consult their parents or school teacher.

Hints : Generally people go for pilgrimages such as Sikhs goes to Amritsar or Anandpur Sahib on Baisakhi. They can go there by train, bus or airways. Some Sikhs go to Nankana Sahib (now-a-days in Pakistan) on the birthday of Guru Nanak. They can go by road, train or airways.

They go to celeberate the birthday of Guru Nanak-the founder of Sikhism. They have a holy darshan of Nankana Sahib. They participate in public ceremony and take langar (food in common kitchen) and pay their respect/regard and homage to Guru Nanak Sahib.

The Hindus go Haridwar on Kumbh or Ardh-Kumbh that comes respectively after every twelve/ six years. They take a holy bath and dip there. They donate to the poor and remember to their ancestors, gods and goddesses. They can go there by bus/ car/ or by train. Some Hindus go to Pushkar very near to Ajmer by train or bus for take a holy bath in holy water tank and pay their regard to Brahmaji, the creator of the world.

Some Muslims go to Nizamuddin’s dargah or dargah of Muinuddin Chisti respectively to Delhi and Ajmer. Some Muslims come from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan and different parts of India to participate in Urs. They pay their respect and homage to respective sufi saints, puts chaddar or money in form of devotion according to their capacity. They enjoy devotional songs and qawali and pray for international brotherhood, love and peace.

Two earliest Bhakti movements of Tamii Nadu were the Alvars and the Nayanars . Some of the earliest Bhakti movements (C. sixth century) were led by the Alvars (literally) those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (literally, leaders who were devotees of Shiva). They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.

(i) The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempt to reform the system. The importance of the traditions of the Alvars and Nayanars was sometime indicated by as the Vedas.

(ii) They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.

The name of person who led a new religious movement in Karnataka was Basavanna (1106 - 68). His followers was known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga). They worship Shiva in his mani festation as a linga and men usually wear a small linga in a silver case on a loop strong over the left shoulders.

Meaning of Zimma : Zimma stands for protected. It is derived from the Arabic word Zimma, protection.

Who were Zimmis : Zimmis were those Jews and Christians who used to live under Muslism rulership. They paid a tax called Jaziya and gained the right to be protected by Muslim rulers. In India this status was extended to Hindus as well.

Causes of popularity of Khwaja Muinuddin Dargah were:

(i)    Chisti Silsila was the must popular among all the people related with sufism. It became very popular in India. It was introduced in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti at the end of 12^th century at Ajmer. The main centres of Chisti Silsila was Ajmer. The saints of this order generally kept aloof from the royal court and politics. They believed in spiritual exercise - Yoga and music.

(ii)    Many Indian customs were adopted by them. It is said by religious scholars that the Chisti customs were similar to Hindu customs. In 16^th century the prominent saint in this seat was Shaikh Salim Chisti, who was the contemporary of Mughal emperer Akbar.

Thousands of devotees or pilgrims visit the dargahs of Muslim saints to seek their spiritual blessings or grace. It is called ziyarat. It is prevalent in all the Muslim countries. These visits take them away from the materialistic society. They provide solace in the realm of asceticism.

(i) Jyotish Peeth : Badrinath, Uttar Pradesh.

(ii)    Govardhan Peeth : Puri, Orissa.

(iii)    Sharda Peeth : Dwarika, Gujarat.

(iv)    Shringeri Peeth : Mysore, Karnataka.

Madhavacharya:He was a devotee of Vishnu. He believed that Bhakti came from knowledge and Moksha could be attained by Bhakti. He propagated the principle of Dvaitvad (Dualism).

Khanqah : It literally means hospice. A prominent mystic lived in a khanqah or hospice along with his disciples.

Nathpanthi : A movement challenging the caste system and the superiority of the Brahmanas is called Nathpanthi.

The compositions of poet-saints have been included in the new textual sources during the period 8th to 18th century.

(i)    These poet-saints expressed themselves orally in regional languages used by ordinary people.

(ii)    These compositions were often set to tunes of music.

Probably the most striking feature of sculpture as well as of texts was the increasing visibility of different gods and goddesses. This indicates toward continuation and extension of worship of major deities i.e. Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess. Each of these deities were visualised in a number of forms.

According to historians, there were atleast two religious processes at work and these were:

(i)    Composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse.

(ii)    Beliefs and practices of women, Shudras and other social categories were given acceptance by Brahmanas.

Sociologists are of the view that most of the religious beliefs and practices of subcontinent were shaped through a continuous dialogue between great Sanskritic Puranic traditions and little traditions throughout the land. One of the most striking examples of this process is seen at Puri, Orissa where the principal deity was identified, by the 12th century, as Jagannatha, and is considered as a form of Vishnu.

The practice of Tantric worship was widespread in many parts of the subcontinent. It had the following features:

(i) It was open to both men and women.

(ii) Those who believe in tantric worship often ignore the differences of caste and class.

Followers of Vedic traditions often condemned practices which went beyond the closely regulated contact with the divine through the performance of precisely chanted mantras or sacrifices. On the other hand those who were engaged in Tantric practices frequently ignored the authority of the Vedas. That’s why there was sometimes a situation of conflict among them.

At the time of Delhi Sultanate, Hindu culture and Muslim culture were integrated with each other. In this way Hindu-Islamic culture was originated.

The literal meaning of the word ‘Silsila’ is a chain which signifies a continuous link between master and disciple. This chain is stretched to the unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. Spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to devotees through this channel. The most famous Sufi Silsila was ‘Chishti Silsila’.

There were special rituals of initiation into Silsila and these were:

(i)    One has to take an oath of allegiance.

(ii)    He should wear a patched garment and shave his hair.

Historians of religion often classify Bhakti traditions into Saguna and Nirguna:

(i)    Saguna Bhakti includes traditions which focused on the worship of specific deities like Shiva, Vishnu and his incarnations and forms of the goddess or Devi.

(ii)    Nirguna Bhakti stresses on the worship of an abstract form of God.

Alvars and Nayanars identified, during their travels, certain shrines as abodes of their respective deities. Later on, large temples were constructed at these places and they became pilgrimage centres. Singing compositions of poet-saints became part of temple rituals in these shrines, as did worship of the images of saints.

The compositions of the Nayanars were marked for their opposition to Buddhism and Jainism. The historians believe that this hostility was due to competition for seeking the royal patronage. The Nayanars were inspired by this feeling.

(i) The Chola rulers made land grants and constructed temples for Vishnu and Shiva. They had constructed magnificent Shiva temples at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram.

(ii) The Chola kings claimed divine support. They exhibited their power and status by building splendid temples and sculptures of Shiva.

(i) The Chishtis were the most influential sufis in India. They adapted themselves successfully to the local environment. They also adopted many features of Indian devotional traditions. Besides they used local languages which were the languages of the people.

(ii)    The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind. They used these donations to fulfil their immediate requirements like food, clothes, living quarters and ritual necessities. It enhanced their moral authority and popularity.

The compositions of Kabir have been compiled in three distinct traditions:

(i)    The Kabir Bijak has been preserved by the Kabirpanth in Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.

(ii)    The Kabir Granthavali is associated with Dadupanth in Rajasthan.

(iii)    Many compositions of Kabir are found in Adi Granth Sahib.

The Ulatbansi compositions of Kabir are intrinsically upside-down sayings. They are written in a form in which everyday meanings are inverted. They express difficulty in capturing the nature of the ultimate reality. They express Kabir’s mystical experiences.

Kabir’s compositions like “the lotus which blooms without flower” and the “fire raging in the ocean” conveys a sense of Kabir’s mystical experiences.

Hagiographies within the Vaishnava tradition suggest that Kabir was born as Hindu (Kabirdas). But he was brought up by a poor Muslim family who belonged to weaver community. Vaishnava traditions also suggest that Kabir was initiated into Bhakti by a Guru Ramananda.

(i) Shri Guru Nanak Dev Ji (ii) Baba Farid (iii) Ravidas Ji (iv) Kabirdas.

The foundation of Khalsa Panth (army of the pure) was laid down by Guru Gobind Singh Ji. He defined its five symbols as follows : (i) Kes (hair), (ii) Kanga (comb), (iii) Kara (iron bangle), (iv) Kaccha (underwear), (v) Kirpan (sword).

Mirabai was the most famous poetess of the Bhakti tradition. She composed many bhajans in praise of Lord Krishna whom she considered as her lover. Her songs are very popular in Gujarat and Rajasthan. She was against caste system. She stood in defiance to the norms of caste society.

(i) Historians draw on a variety of sources to reconstruct histories of religious traditions—these include sculpture, architecture, stories about religious preceptors, compositions attributed to women and men engaged in the quest of understanding the nature of the divine.

(ii) Virtually all these religious traditions continue to flourish to date. This continuity has certain advantages for historians as it allows them to compare contemporary practices with those described in textual traditions or shown in old paintings and to trace changes.

Khanqahs : By the eleventh century, sufism evolved into a well developed movement with a body of literature on Quranic studies and sufi practices. Institutionally, the sufis began to organise communities around the hospice or khanqah (Persian) controlled by a teaching master known as Shaikh (in Arabic), pir or murshid in Persian. He enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (khalifa). He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction between inmates as well as between laypersons and the master.

I think due to the following reasons the traditions of Baba Guru Nanak remain significant even today :

(i)    Guru Nanak was a great humanitarian, believed in secularism and communal harmony. In 21st century India is a secular state and we want that communal harmony should prevail in India.

(ii)    Baba Guru Nanak believed in existence of one God or Wahe Guru. According to him God is everywhere and can be worshipped in any form. He was a true democrate in the field of religion. For him the Absolute or rub does not belong any particular gender or form. He advocated a form of Nirgun Bhakti. He firmly repudiated the external practices of the religions he saw around him.

(iii)    Twenty first century is a scientific century. It’s progress is based on latest knowledge, scientific discoveries, inventions and technology. We know science rejects sacrifices, blind faiths, wrong traditions and superstitions.

During his life time, Baba Guru Nanak rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities and the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.

(iv) Guru Nanak believed in simple living and high thinking. Definitely this idea does not suit to western ideological thinkers and supporters of materialistic culture. But he was in favour of language of common people in the field of religion. About him certain writers had written that Guru Nanak Dev proposed a simple way to connect to Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine Name, expressing his idea through hymns called “shabad” in Punjabi, the language of the region.

The Main Principles of Sufism:
1. Monotheism : The sufis were the adherents of Islam but alongwith they stressed monotheism. They accepted the pieces of advice of the pirs and prophets.
2.    Mysticism : Their ideology is that of mysticism. It attaches importance to the secret and profound meaning of the Quran. The sufis see God (Allah) in every practice.
3.    Stress on Love and Meditation : Man can reach near God through true affection. The prayers and fasts hold no significance before the love for God.
4.    Bhakti Music : They attach over due importance to music in order to please God. He was against idol-worship.
5.    Importance of Pir or Teacher : The sufis attached great significance to teachers or Pirs. They followed their pieces of advice.

Main Teachings of Sufism:

(i) The Sufi saints were of the opinion that God is one and all of us are His children. Rama, Krishna and Mohammad were not the incarnation of God. They were simple, noble and great souls.

(ii)    The Sufi saints were of the opinion that love of mankind alone was the love of God. Because God loves only those, who love His creation.

(iii)    The Sufi saints stressed on the superiority of action in comparison to religion. They were of the opinion that man is known by his noble actions rather than his noble religion.

(iv)    Attainment of Godhood is the main objective of all the religions. Therefore, all the religions are at par.

(v)    The Guru or the Pir should be given greater respect.

(vi)    One must believe in peace and nonviolence. Love for humanity is the basis of nonviolence.

Lingayats and their contribution:

1.    A popular movement which arose during the twelfth century was the Lingayat or Virshaiva Movement.

2.    Its founder was Basava and his nephew, Channabasava, who lived at the court of the Kalachuri kings of Karanataka.

3.    They established their faith after bitter disputes with the Jains.

4.    The Lingayats are worshippers of Lord Shiv a.

5.    They strongly opposed the caste system and rejected fasts, feats, pilgrimage and sacrifice.

6.    In the social sphere, they opposed child marriage and allowed remarriage of widows.

(i) Adi Sankara’s philosophy is called Advaitavada or the doctrine of non-dualism.

(ii) According to Sankara, God and the created world was one. The differences were apparent but not real and arose due to ignorance.

(iii) The way forward to salvation was devoting to God, strengthened by the knowledge that God and the created being were one and the same. This philosophy is called Vedanta. Thus, Sankara upheld the Vedas as the foundation head of the true knowledge.

Following were the main objectives of Bhakti movement:

(i)    A number of dogmatism became a part of Hinduism. People became very superstitious. They started to belive in idol worship, sacrifices, magic, etc. So the main objective of Bhakti movement was to remove all these evil practices.

(ii)    Caste system became very rigid in Hinduism. People of lower castes were hated by the upper caste. Lower castes started to adopt Islam and Hinduism came in danger. Preachers of Bhakti movement wanted to save Hinduism from this sort of danger.

(iii)    Muslims also forced Hindus to convert to Islam. It led to increase in mutual conflicts among them. So Bhakti movement was originated to remove mutual differences. There was another major objective of Bhakti movement and that was to encourage religious harmony in the country.

Yet Amir Khusrau was a literary person of Persian language but he was a great supporter of Hindi (Hindavi). He loved India and gave the status of Aristotle to Indian Brahmanas. He was born at Patiala in 1252 AD. He gave more importance to this country in comparison with heaven. Following is given his contribution in the fields of music and literature.

(i) Khusrau composed many anthologies which include historical Premakhyan. He used all the forms of poetry and then formed new Persian form which later on called as Sabak-e-Hindi or Indian form of poetry.

(ii)    Amir Khusrau gave a unique form to the Chishti Sama by introducing the qaul, a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwali. Qawwals at the shrine of Shaikh Nizammuddin Auliya always started their recital with the qaul.

(iii)    Amir Khusrau was himself a great musician and took part in many religious sabhas. These sabhas were organised by sufi saint Shaikh Nizammuddin Auliya. It has been said that Amir Khusrau died on the second day after the death of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.

Main Principles of Bhakti Movement:

1.    God is One : The propagating saints of Bhakti Movement believe in a single God. He was of the opinion that the people utter the names of Rama, Krishna, Allah, Vishnu, Shiva etc. for their convenience. In reality, God is one.

2.    Sacrifice towards God : The saints of the Bhakti Movement were of the view that self dedication to God leads to renunciation. Lust, anger, greed, attachment and ego are detrimental to the path of total indulgence into Godlihood. Therefore, their sacrifice alone is beneficial.

3.    Devotion to God : The saints were of the opinion that a true heart, love, devotion and concentration ease the attainment of God. On surrendering himself to the will of God one gets liberated from the bondage of births and deaths.

4.    Praise of Guru (the teacher) : One cannot seek knowledge about the Lord without the help of the Guru, such was the opinion of the Bhakti saints. At places they treated the Guru at par with God. For instance :

The devotee falls into a dubious position whether he should touch the feet of God or that of his Guru whom should he give priority if both of them happened to stand together.

5.    Praise of Good Deeds : The saints of the Bhakti Movement laid special emphasis on good deeds. They held the opinion that mankind can improve both his worldly and other worldly life on the strength of forgiveness, satisfaction, service, truth etc. He will conquer rivalry and opposition in this world and God will also be merciful on him.

I. Three main causes responsible for origin of Bhakti Movement : Shsnkaracharya saved the Hindu religion from decline. But the common masses could not comprehend their high thought and philosophy. Hence the origin of ‘Bhakti Movement’ was quite natural under such circumstances. The afflicted public which was sick of the Muslim invasion, robberies and crulties sought solace in the slave the slaughter of girls and refuse of God alone. Besides this, many evils like the sati system, the racial discrimination were prevalent in society.

II. Three main Saints of Bhakti Movement.

1.    Ramanuja : He was the worshipper of Vishnu. Vishnu had various names which were treated as the forms of God.

2.    Kabir : He was against idol worship. He was of the opinion that Ishwar, Allah, Ram and Rahim are all one and the same. He gave a blow at the caste system as well.

3.    Chaitanya : He was a devotee of Krishna. He accepted Krishna as the incarnation of Vishnu. He opposed casteism too.

There is no denying the fact that there was a remarkable similarity between the ideologies of Sufism and Bhakti Movement which exhibits a clear reflection of the contemporary social and religious life of the people. The following facts confirm this statement:

1.    Development of Goodwill amongst Hindu and Muslims : Both the communities sternly opposed the discrimination of castes, religions and divisions. They stressed the same before the people that basically there are no differences between the Hindus and Mohammedans. They are both the children of God. They told that the simple route to the attainment of Godlihood lies in the love for humanity. Both the Hindus and the Mohammedans treated Kabir, Farid and Noor-ud-din as their ideals.

2.    Religious Tolerance : As a result of influence of the sermons of the saints of Bhakti Movement and Sufism, religious fanaticism grew less among the people. Even Sultans of Delhi and the Mughal rulers too were influenced by their sermons and they followed liberal policy.

3.    Encouragement to the Regional Literature : The Bhakti saints compose their compositions in local languages. Guru Nanak wrote in Punjabi, Kabir in Hindi, Chaitanya in Bangla whereas the sufi saints and the Faqirs wrote in Urdu.

4.    Feelings of Social Service : The sufi saints and the Bhakti poets appealed to the helpless that they should serve the poor, helpless and the orphans. Most probably many Sultans of Delhi had opened orphanages and charity houses under the influence of the sufi saints.

5.    Increase in Pilgrimages : Both the sufi and the Bhakti saints were popular among the people. Hence their tombs and shrines became the places of pilgrimages. Both the Hindus and Mohammedans visited those places.

(a) Kabir (c. fourteenth-fifteenth centuries) is perhaps one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saint who emerged within this context. Historians have painstakingly tried to reconstruct his life and times through a study of compositions attributed to him as well as later hagiographies.

(b)    Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct but overlapping traditions. The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh, the Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan, and many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib.

(c)    Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects, and some are composed in the special language of nirguna poets, the saint bhasha.

(d) Diverse and sometimes conflicting ideas are expressed in these poems. Some poems draw on Islamic ideas and use monotheism and iconoclasm to attack Hindu polytheism and idol worship.

(e) Just as Kabir’s ideas probably crystallised through dialogue and deba e explicit or implicit with the traditions of sufis and yogis in the region of Awadh (part of present day Uttar Pradesh), his legacy was claimed by several groups, who remembered him and continue to do so.

(f) However, the attributed to Kabir, he use the words guru and satguru, but do not mention the name of any specific preceptor.

I. Biography of Mirabai : Mira, the devotee of Giridhar Gopal occupies special position among the saints of medieval times. The Ganges of devotion, which she flooded with the poetry springing out of her heart, influenced not on to barren land of Rajasthan but the whole of northern India.

Mira was born in Kurki or Chaukri Village of the paragana of Merta or Rajasthan in about 1516 AD. Mira was the daughter of Rana Ratan Singh Rathor, ruler of Jodhpur. Her mother died when she was only 4-5 years old. Her grandfather brought her up. She was much influenced by the religious ideas of her grandfather.

At the age of 18 years, Mira was married to Bhojraj, the son of Sangram Singh, the ruler of Mewar.But the married life of Mira was very short-lived. Only a year after her marriage, Mira’s husband died. Thus, Mira became a widow at an early age. After sometime, Mira’s father-in-law Rana Sangram Singh also died. Now Mira was left without any support. She, therefore, renouncing worldly atachments and lost in devotion to Lord Krishna. She showed hospitality towards saints, and wearing anklets in her feet, she took to dancing before the idol of Krishna. People at her in-law’s house took her activities at contrary to the dignity of the family. They, therefore, torturing her in different ways, tried to put an end to her life. It is said that fed up with her in-laws, Mira sought the advice of Tulsidas through a letter written to him. Tulsidas replied to Mira as under :

“Who does not love Rama and Sita, should be deserted like thousand of enemies, however affectionate he may be to you.”

Seeking this reply, Mira left home and went to Brindaban. After staying there for some time, Mira went to Dwarika. It is said that Brahmanas from her parental home as well as in-laws went to fetch her from Dwarika but she did not return. She died in Dwarika in 1574 AD.

II. How did Mirabai defy the norms of Society :

(a)    Mirabai (c. fifteenth-sixteenth centuries) is perhaps the best-known woman poet within the bhakti tradition. Biographies have been reconstructed primarily from the bhajans attributed to her, which were transmitted orally for centuries. According to these, she was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar who was married against her wishes to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar, Rajasthan. She defied her husband and did not submit to the traditional role of wife and mother,instead recognising Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu as her lover.

(b)    According to some traditions, her preceptor was Raidas, a leather worker. This would indicate her defiance of the norms of caste society.

(c)    Although Mirabai did not attract a sect or group of followers, she has been recognised as a source of inspirations for centuries.

These are Popular Practices of Islam as under:

(a)    The developments that followed the coming of Islam were not con fined to ruling elites : in fact they permeated far and wide, through the subcontinent, amongst diaTerent social strata -peasants, artisans, warriors, merchants, to name a few. All those who adopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five “pillars” of the faith : that there is one God. Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger : offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat) : giving alms (zakat); fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm) : and performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (haj).

(b)    Arab Muslim traders who settled along the Malabar coast (Kerala) adopted the local language, Malayalam. They also adopted local customs such as matriliny and matrilocal residence.

There were conflicts during 8th and 18th century between different methods of worship, to attain state’s grants and to gain a place anywhere. Following examples could be given in this regard:

(i)    Worship of Goddess : Forms of worship of goddess were often classified as Tantric. Tantric practices were widespread in many parts of subcontinent. These practices were open for both men and women.

Except this, within the ritual context differences of caste and class were often ignored. Many of these ideas also influenced Shaivism and Buddhism. Especially in the norhtern, eastern and southern parts of subcontinent, all these beliefs and practices were classified in the form of Hindu.

(ii)    Differences in Vedic and Puranic Traditions : These differences would become clear if we would compare Vedic and Puranic traditions. Deities like Agni, Indra and Soma had completely lost their importance during Vedic age. They are rarely visible in textual or visual representatives. But we can see a glimpse of Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess in Vedic mantras, probably their Puranic form was changed. However, even after these discrepancies, the Vedas were continued to be regarded as authoritative.

(iii)    Situation of Conflict : There were sometimes conflicting situations as well. Followers of Vedic tradition generally condemned those practices which went beyond the closely regulated contact with the divine through performance of precisely chanted mantras. On the other hand there were people who were engaged in tantric practices. They often ignored the authority of the Vedas. Except this, devotees often tried to project their respective deity, Shiva or Vishnu, as supreme. Relations with other traditions like Jainism or Buddhism were also often fraught with tension. Even then there were less chances of open conflict. Example of Bhakti tradition could be given in this regard.

(iv) Bhakti Tradition : Bhakti tradition included the devotion ranged from the routine worship of deities within temples to ecstatic adoration when devotees could attain a state like a trance. The singing and chanting of devotional compositions was a part of this type of worship. It was particularly applicable on Vaishnava and Shiva sects.

Relation Between State and Bhakti Tradition:

(i)    The initial Bhakti movement was launched under the leadership of Alvars and Nayanars. The Alvars were the disciples of Lord Vishnu whereas the Nayanars were the devotees of Lord Shiva. They settled at one place and roamed in the nearby areas. They recited hymns in praise of their idol in Tamil language.

(ii)    During their travels, the Alvars and Nayanars declared some sacred places as the abode of their respective deities. Later on large temples were constructed on these places and all these places became the centres of pilgrimage.

(iii)    The central point of the Tamil devotional creations was their opposition to Buddhism and Jainism. This feeling of opposition is more distinct in the creations of the saints belonging to the Nayanar saints. According to the historians, the main reason for their opposition was that there was a competition between different religious communities to seek state patronage.

(iv)    The powerful Chola rulers supported the Brahmanical and Bhakti tradition. They donated land for the construction of temples dedicated to Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva.

(v)    The vast and imposing temples of Lord Shiva in Chidambram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram were built with the help of the Chola rulers.

(vi)    The Alvar and Nayanar saints were honoured by the Vallal peasants. Even the rulers also tried to seek their help and patronage. For example, the Chola rulers claimed to get the divine support. They also got built vast and magnificent temples to expose their grandeur and authority. These temples had statues made of stone and metal.

(vii)    An edict of 945 AD mentioned that a Chola ruler Parantak-I got built the metal statues of saint poet Sambandar and Sundrar. He got them installed in the Shiva temple.

(viii)    The temples of North India especially emphasise the worship of Vishnu and Shiva. All these temples were basically built with the help of the rulers.

Relation between Sufi Saints and State :

(i)    Major characteristic of the Chishti community was its simple and disciplined life. They emphasised to remain away from the mundane authority. But it did not mean to keep aloof from the political power. The Chishtis accepted all the donations made by the royal rulers. However they themselves never demanded such gifts or donations. The Sultans gave khanqahs land in donation. Many trusts were set up regarding grants, gifts and donations.

(ii)    The Chishtis accepted donation both in cash and kind. But they never accumulated donations. They spent them on immediate requirements like food, clothes, living quarters and ritual necessities. It enhanced the moral authority of the Shaikhs who attracted people from all walks of life. They became very popular as they possessed piety, scholarship, miraculous powers and royal patronage. That is why, all the rulers tried to secure their support.

(iii)    The Sultans knew that most of their subjects did not follow Islam. So when the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, they rejected the wish of the ulama to impose Shariat as state law. They expected opposition from their subjects as majority of them were non-Muslims. They depended on the sufis who derived their authority directly from God. They did not depend on jurists to interpret the Shariat.

(iv) There are many examples of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis. Both wanted to assert their authority. Both emphasised the prostration and kissing of the feet. Because of the moral authority of the Chishtis, the kings often wanted their tombs to be in the vicinity of Rufi shrines. On the other hand, the sufi Shaikhs were also addressed with high-sounding titles. For example, the disciples of Nizamuddin Auliya.

Arab merchants frequently came along the parts of western coast in the first millennium C.E. During the same period, people from Central Asialcaroe in subcontinent and settled in the north-western parts. With the advent of Islam and from the 7th century onwards, these regions became a part of that world which is often termed as the Islamic world.

Establishment of Islamic Authority : In 711 AD, an Arab General Muhammad Bin Qasim conquered Sindh and annexed to the domains of Caliph Later on (around 13th century) Turks and Afghans established Delhi Sultanate. Gradually, Sultanatfi spread in Deccan and other parts of subcontinent. Religion of most of the rulers in most of the regions was Islam. This situation remained till the establishment of

Mughal Empire in 16th century. Many regional kingdoms were emerged in the loth century and most of them had faith in Islam.

Maintaining balance with Subjects:

Theoretically, Muslim rulers were supposed to be guided by the ulamas. It was expected from ulamas that they could ensure that they ruled according to the Sharia. But the situation in subcontinent was so complicated because a large section of population did not subscribe to Islam.

In this context zimmi, means protected category, was developed. Zimmi word was used for the people who followed revealed scriptures like Jews and Christians living in the regions of Islamic rulers. These people paid a tax called Jizya. In lieu of that they gained the right of protection by Muslim rulers. Hindus in India were also included among zimmis. That’s why rulers like Mughals regarded themselves as emperors of Muslims and of all peoples.

Actually rulers generally adopted a fairly flexible policy towards their subjects. For example many rulers gave land grants and tax exemptions to Jainas, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians and Jewish religious institutions. They also expressed their respect toward non-Muslim religious leaders. These grants were given by many Mughal rulers including Akbar, Aurangzeb, etc.

1.    The Padris (fathers) of the Holy Society of Jesus wished to build a house of prayer (church) in the city of Kambayat (Khambat) in Gujarat.

2.    Akbar issued an exalted mandate to his officials. He ordered that the dignitaries of the city of Kambayat should in no case stand in their way. They should be allowed to build a church so that they might engage themselves in their own worship. It was made necessary that the order of the emperor should be obeyed in every way.

3.    Theoretically, Muslim rulers were to be guided by the ulama, who were expected to ensure that they ruled according to the Sharia.

4. The situation was complicated in the subcontinent, where there were populations that did not subscribe to Islam. It is in this context that the category of the zimmi, meaning protected (derived from the Arabic word zimma (protection) developed for peoples who followed revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and Christians and lived under Muslim rulership. In India this status was extended to Hindus as well. The Mughals came to regard themselves as emperors of not just Muslims but of all peoples.

The examples:

 (i) The Sufis began to organise communities around the hospices or Khanqah controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh, pir or murshid.
(ii) Sufi silsilas began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world, it was through this channel that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to devotees.

The features of Islamic religion which contributed to its spread through the sub-continent:

(i) The developments that followed the coming of Islam were not confined to ruling elites; in fact they permeated far and wide, through the subcontinent, amongst different social strata – peasants, artisans, warriors, merchants, to name a few.

(ii) All those who adopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five “pillars” of the faith: that there is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger (shahada);

(iii) Offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat); giving alms (zakat); fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm); and performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).

(iv) However, these universal features were often overlaid with diversities in practice derived from sectarian affiliations (Sunni, Shi‘a), and the influence of local customary practices of converts from different social milieus.

(v) Elsewhere, Arab Muslim traders who settled along the Malabar Coast (Kerala) adopted the local language, Malayalam. They also adopted local customs such as matriliny and matrilocalh residence.

(a) People bemoaned and showed the emotional upheaval due to:

(i) Allegation of misrule and maladministration on Nawab Wajid Ali Shah

(ii) Removal of Nawab.

(iii) Dissolution of court and culture.

(b) Human values revealed in the passage:

(i) Affection

(ii) Respect

Similarity between lingayats and Nayanars –

i. Both opposed the caste system

ii. Both worshipped lord Shiva

Dissimilarity –

i. Nayanars were not confined to any particular region while the lingayats were popular in Karnataka

ii. Nayanars worshipped Shiva in both an idol and linga form whereas Lingayats worshipped only the linga form

Values learnt from the life of Meera Bai are:

(i) Sacrifice and devotion to god

(ii) Caste equality

(iii) Women empowerment
(iv) Self-reliance.

(16.1) Ziyarat means Pilgrimage.
(16.2) Jahanara devotions:
(i) she did not sleep on a leopard skin at night
(ii) she did not extend her feet in the direction of the blessed sanctuary
(iii) she did not turn her back towards him
(iv) she rubbed her pale face with the dust of that holy sanctuary threshold
(16.3) It was popular because of the austerity and piety of its Shaikh, the greatness of his spiritual successors, and the patronage of royal visitors.

(i) He believed in the Nirguna Bhakti.
(ii) The range of traditions Kabir drew on to describe the Ultimate
Reality include Islam: as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir.
(iii) Verses ascribed to kabir have been compiled in the Kabir Bijak,
Kabir Granthavali and Adi Grantha Sahib.
(iv) He also used terms drawn from Vedantic traditions, alakh (the unseen), nirakar formless), Brahman, Atman, etc. (v) The terms with mystical connotations such as shabda (sound) or shunya (emptiness) were drawn from yogic traditions. 
(vi) He questioned entrenched religious and social institutions, ideas and practices in their search for the Divine.
(vii) He probably crystallised through dialogue and debate with the traditions of Sufis and Yogis. 
(viii) He believed in divinity rather than any particular religion.
(ANY FOUR)