Read the following extract carefully and answer the questions that follow:

                                                             The system of varnas

This is Al-Biruni’s account of the system of varnas:

The highest caste are the Brahmana, of whom the books of the Hindus tell us that they were created from the head of Brahman. And as the Brahman is only another name for the force called nature, and the head is the highest part of the ... body, the Brahmana are the choice part of the whole genus. Therefore the Hindus consider them as the very best of mankind.

The next caste are the Kshatriya, who were created, as they say, from the shoulders and hands of Brahman. Their degree is not much below that of the Brahmana. After them follow the Vaishya, who were created from the thigh of Brahman.

The Shudra, who were created from his feet ...

Between the latter two classes there is no very great distance. Much, however, as these classes differ from each other, they live together in the same towns and villages, mixed together in the same houses and lodgings.

(16.1) What gave Brahmanas their superior status?

(16.2) How did Al-Biruni disapprove the ‘notion of pollution’?

(16.3)Who lived together, yet segregated ? What impact did they have on the society ?

Discuss the extent to which Bernier’s account enables historians to reconstruct contemporary rural society.

Read this excerpt from Bernier:

“Numerous are the instances of handsome pieces of workmanship made by persons destitute of tools, and who can scarcerly be said to have received instruction from a master. Sometimes they imitate so perfectly articles of European manufacture that the difference between the original and copy can hardly be discerned. Among other things, the Indians make excellent muskets, and gold fowling-pieces, and such beautiful gold ornaments that it may be doubted if the exquisite workmanship of those articles can he exceeded by any European goldsmith. I have often admired the beauty, softness and delicacy of their paintings.”

List the crafts mentioned in the passage. Compare those with the descriptions of artisanal activity in the chapter.

On an outline map of the world mark the countries visited by Ibn Battuta. What are the seas that he may have crossed?

For any one of the travellers mentioned in the chapter, find out more about his life and writings. Prepare a report on his travels, noting in particular how he described society, and comparing these descriptions with the excerpts included in the chapter.

How had Bernier described a complex social reality of the artisans under the Mughals. Give any one reason.

Name the book written by Al-Biruni. Mention its language and content.

Give a brief introduction of Francois Bernier. How long he remained in India?

Name the two women poet-saints of Tamil Nadu. Whom did they worship?

Mention Bernier’s views about private property and crown ownership of land.

Mention any two characteristics of the cities in the Indian sub-continent, as described by Ibn-Battuta.