Social Change And Development In India Chapter 3 The Story Of Indian Democracy

The system of taking collective decision through panch (a group of five persons) is known as panchayat. It is largely self-governing institution. After the recommendation of Balwant Rai Mehta Commitee, the formation of three-tier Panchayati Raj institution was stated in all the states of India passed by Panchayati Acts by 1959. All the seats in a panchayat are filled by persons chosen by direct election in the panchayat area.

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In India democratic decentralisation is known as Panchayati Raj System. It was introduced in 1959 and was linked with the major programme for rural development such as the Community Development Programme which was introduced in 1952. The three tier Panchayati Raj System aimed at ensuring peoples participation in the development programme. The Seventy-Third and the Seventy-Fourth Amendments have given more powers to the panchayats in rural areas.

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Preamble to the Constitution of India:

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a ' [SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC, REPUBLIC] and to secure to all its citizen:
JUSTICE, social economic and political;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

EQUALITY of status and oppotunity;

And to promote them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the {unity and integrity of the Nation}’

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-six day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

Powers and Responsibilities of Panchayats:

According to the Indian Constitution, Panchayats should be given powers and authority to function as institutions of self-government. It, thus, requires all state governments to revitalise local representative institutions.

The following powers and resposibility were delegated to the Panchayats:

(i) to prepare plans and schemes for economic development

(ii) to prepare shemes that will enhance social justice

(iii) to levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees

(iv) help in the devolution of governmental responsibilities, especially that of finances to local authorities.

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Social Responsibilities of the Panchayats:

Social welfare responsibilities of the Panchayats include the maintenance of burning and burial grounds, recording statistics of births and deaths, establishment of child welfare and maternity centres, control of cattle pounds, propagation of family planing and promotion of agriculture activities. The development activities include the constructions of roads, public buildings, wells, tanks and schools. They also promote small cottage industries and take care of minor irrigation works. Many government schemes like the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) are monitored by members of the panchayat.

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Nyaya Panchayat have been constituted in some states. They possess the the authority to hear some petty, civil and criminal cases. They can impose fines but cannot award a sentence. These village courts have been often been successful in bringing about an agreement amongst contending parties. They have been particularly effective in punishing men who harass women for dowry and perpetrate violence against them.

I. Sources of Income: The main income of the Panchayats is from tax on property, profession, animals, vehicles, cess on land revenue and rentals. The resources are further increased by the grants received through the Zilla Panchayat.

II. Items of Expenditures: Panchayats expend their funds on sanitation lighting of the streets, roads and lands, water supply, disposals of dirt and wastages, roads construction, primary school, small-parks, library, etc.

III. Checks on Panchayats: It is also considered compulsory for Panchayat offices to put up hoards outside their offices, listing the break-up of funds received, and utilisation of the financial aid received. This exercise was taken up to ensure that people at the grassroot level should have the ‘right to information’ -opening all functioning to the public eye. People had the right to scrutinise allocation of money. And ask reasons for decisions that were taken for the welfare and development activities of the village.

(1) We have adopted the Panchayati Raj institutions for achieving democratic decentralisation. Panchayats are constituted at the village intermediate and district levels. Gram Sabha is a body consisting of all persons living in the village. Gram Sabha is considered as the soul of Panchayati Raj. The chairperson of the Panchayat of the village level is elected by the voters of the Panchayat.

(2) In every panchayat, seats are reserved for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in proportion to their population in the panchayat area. The duration of the panchayat is five years.

(3) Panchayats have been given the power and authority to enable them to function as institutions of self-government. There are two major areas which have been identified for this purpose:

(i) The preparation of plans for economic development.

(ii) The implementation of scheme for economic development and social justice.

I. Introduction: (i) Before independence the Indian National Congress was the main political party which led to freedom struggle against the British rule in 1931. This party held its session at Karachi (now-a-days in Pakistan). It is the resolution of 1931 is called a historic documents. Through it several programmes and policies were formulated.

(ii) Infact Motilal Nehru and eight other Congress leaders drafted a constitution for India. In 1931, the resolution at the Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress dealt on how independent India’s constitution should be. The Karachi Resolution reflects a vision of democracy that meant not just formal holding of elections but a substantive reworking of the Indian social structure in order to have a genuine democratic society.

(iii) The Karachi Resolution clearly spells out the vision of democracy that the nationalist movement in India had. It articulates the values that were further given full expression in the Indian Constitution. You will notice how the Preamble of the Indian Constitution seeks to ensure not just political justice but also social and economic justice. You will, likewise, notice that equality is not just about equal political rights but also of status and opportunity.

II. Karachi Congress Resolution, 1931: Swaraj as conceived by the congress should include real economic freedom of the masses. The Congress declares that no constituion will be acceptable to it unless it provides or enables the Swaraj Government to provide for:

1. Freedom of expression, association and meeting.

2. Freedom of religion.

3. Protection of all cultures and languages.

4. All citizens shall be equal before the law.

5. No disability in employment or trade or profession on account of religion, caste or sex.

6. Equal rights and duties for all in regard to public wells, etc.

7. All to have right to bear arms in accordance with regulations.

8. No person to be deprived of property or liberty except in accordance with law.

9. Religious neutrality of State.

10. Adult Suffrage.

11. Free compulsory primary education.

12. No titles to be conferred.

13. Capital punishment to be abolished.

14. Freedom of movement for every citizen of India and right to settle and acquire property in any part thereof, and equal protection of law.

15. Proper standard of life for industrial workers and sutiable machinery for settlement of disputes between employers and workers and protection against old age, sickness, etc.

16. All labour to be free from conditions of serfdom.

17. Sepcial protection of women workers.

18. Children not to be employed in mine and factories.

19. Rights of peasants and workers to form unions.

20. Reform of system of land revenue and tenure and rent, exempting rent and revenue for uneconomical holdings and reduction of dues payable for smaller holdings.

21. Inheritance tax on graduated scale.

22. Reduction of military expenditure by at least half.

23. No servant of State ordinarily to be paid above Rs. 500 per month.

24. Abolition of Salt Tax.

25. Protection of indigenous cloth against competition of foreign cloth.

26. Total prohibition of intoxicating drink and drugs.

27. Currency and exchange in national interest.

28. Nationalisation of key industries and services, railways, etc.

29. Relief of agricultural indebtedness and control of usury.

30. Military training for citizens.

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(i) Decmocracy is a form of government i.e., of people, by the people, for the people. On the other hand interest groups are informed specific interest. They are part and parcel of democracy. Generally interest groups are private organisation formed to influence public policy. They are non-political and their sole aim is to uphold their own interests.

(ii) Political parties are not interest groups. They contest elections and aspire for running the government, in order to influence those political parties. Sometimes interest groups are formed. Thus interest groups provide the individuals to join with others having the same interest in order to put forth their demand very effectively. The principle of strength lies in unity which is the motto of each interest group. Decision of government are often influenced by these groups.

(iii) In a democratic system the interests of different groups are also represented by political parties, who take up their case. Different interest groups will work towards influencing political parties. When certain groups feel that their interests are not being taken up they may move to form an alternative party. Or they form pressure groups who lobby with the government.

(iv) Interest Groups are organised to pursue specific interests in the political arena, operating primarily by lobbying the members of legislative bodies. In some situations, there may be political organisations which seek to achieve power but are denied the opportunity to do so through standard means. These organisations are best regards as movements until they achieve recognition. The pressure groups are important in India since they perform the following important functions:

A. Formation of public opinion: Pressure groups play an important role in creating and moulding public opinion. They use different means of propaganda and communication to get the goodwill of public opinion and to mould the administration in their own favour. For propaganda purposes they use radio, press and T.V.... etc.

B. To help the people at the time of natural calamity: The interest groups help the people at the time of the natural calamities, like floods, earthquakes, etc. In this way on the one hand, they earn goodwill of the people and on the other they influence the government. In fact, they spend the large sum of money to manipulate the mass attitudes. Ultimately the public opinion comes to their favour.

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Snippets from the debates:

• K. T. Shah said that the right to useful employment could and should be made real by a categoric obligation on the part of the state to provide useful work to every citizen who was able and qualified.

• B. Das spoke against classifying the functions of the government as justiciable and non-justicable. “I think it is the primary duty of Government to remove hunger and render social justice to every citizen and to secure social security.......”.

The teeming millions do not find any hope that the Union Constitution...will ensure them freedom from hunger, will secure them social justice, will ensure them a minimum standard of living and a minimum standard of public health”.

• Ambedkar’s answer was as follows: “The Draft Constitution as framed only provides a machinery for the government of the country. It is not a contrivance to install any particular party in power as has done in some countries. Who should be in power is left to be determined by the people, as it must be, if the system is to satisfy the tests of democracy. But whoever captures power will not be free to do what he likes with it. In the exercise of it, he will have to respect these instruments of instructions which are called Directive Principles. He cannot ignore them. He may not have to answer for their breach in a court of law. But he will certainly have to answer for them before the electorate at election time. What great value these directive principles possess will be realised better when the forces of right contrive to capture power.”

• On land reform Nehru said, that the social forces were such that law could not stand in the way of reform, an interesting reflection on the dynamics between the two. “If law and Parliament do not fit themselves into the changing picture, they cannot control the situation”.

• On the protection of the tribal people and their interests, leaders like Jaipal Singh were assured by Nehru in the following words during the Constituent Assembly debates: “It is our intention and our fixed desire to help them as possible; in as efficient a way as possible to protect them from possibly their rapacious neighbours occasionally and to make them advance”.

• Even as the Constituent Assembly adopted the title Directive Principles of State Policy to the rights that courts could not enforce, additional principles were added with unanimous acceptance. These included K. Santhanam’s clause that the state shall organise village panchayats and endow them with the powers and authority to be effective units of local self-government.

• T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar added the clause for promotion of cottage industries on co-operative lines in rural areas. Veteran parlimentarian Thakurdas Bhargava added that the state should organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern lines.
The kind of interest groups that existing in contemporary India when the new Constitution of India was being framed by Constituent Assembly:

(a) The people having faith in left ideology interest in socialism. They wanted the right to work to be included as a fundamental right in the constitution of the country. For example -K.T. Shah said that the right to use full employment could and should be made real by a categoric obligation on the part of the state to provide useful work to every citizen who was able and qualified.

(b) There were interest groups of such people who wanted to give more importance to economic and social justice than the classification of political duties of the government. No doubt they favoured division of power of the government but such people stressed and thought that the coming government of India should feel its primary duty to remove hunger and render social justice to every citizen to secure social security for all without discriminating on the basis of gender, caste, creed religion and region. For example B. Das spoke against classifying the functiong of the government as justiciable and non-justiciable. “I think it is the primary duty of the government to remove hunger and render social justice to every citizen and to secure social security -”.

(c) There were some people represent all the adults of the country like Dr. B.R. Ambedker would reside with the representatives as the governing party, which shall be decided by the people through voting. He declared that the final power. His answer was an follows to some members of Constituent Assembly. “The draft constitution as framed only provides a machinery for the government of the country. It is not a contrivance to install any particular party in power as has been done in some countries. Who should be in power as left to be determined by the people, as it must be, if the system is to satisfy the tests of democracy. But whoever captures powers will not be free to do what he likes with it. In the exercise of it, he will have to respect these instruments which are called Direct Principles.

(d) There were some pressure groups to introduce land reforms in India. They wanted to abolish Zamindari and desired to work for the consolidation of land. They desired that Indian Parliament should pass immediately such laws which were helpful to implement land reforms in India. For example -Jawaharlal Nehru said, that the social forces were such that law could not stand in the way of reform, an interesting reflection on the dynamics between the two. “If law and Parliament do not fit themselves into the changing picture, they cannot control the situation.”

(e) There was also a pressure group who wanted to raise the voice in favour of tribal people of the country. These leaders like Jai Pal Singh wanted to have assurance from prominent members of the Constituent Assembly that economic, social and cultural interest of the tribal people would be protected and they will get all possible help for protection of fresh, tribal, common land their cultural and they would set full help for their advancement.

(f) There were certain pressure or interest groups which wanted to adopt some programmes and policies under Directive Principles of State Policy so that whosoever comes in power as a ruling party should flow the principle of state policy for development of the country in direct directions. This pressure group wanted decentralisation of administration and political power to extend upto village Panchayat level.

(g) There was a pressure group of artisans and common professional who were busy in cottage industries. They wanted that Indian government should aware the people to promote and protect cottage industry and those industry should be run an co-operative lines. For example - Veteran parliamentarian Thakurdas Bhargava added that the state should organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern lines.

How do they functions?: Interest Group in India adopt-two methods and they drive to pressure the political party in power or the government adopting the two methods.

1. To influence the legislative committees: The interest groups establish necessary contracts and maintain relations with the members of the different legislative committees and present their views in favour of their interest and influence them. They also get the necessary amendments done in the bills which are still to become laws.

2. To help people at the time of natural calamity: The interest groups help the people at the time of the natural calamities, like floods, earthquakes, etc. In this way on the one hand they earn goodwill of the people and on the other hand they influence the government. In fact, they spend the large sums of money to manipulate the mass attitudes. Ultimately the public opinion comes to their favour.

I. Importance to understand difference between law and justice: It is useful to understand that there is a difference between law and justice. The essence of law is its force. Law is law because it carries the means of coerce or force obedience. The power of the state is behind it. The essence of justice is fairness. Any system of laws functions through a hierarchy of authorities.

II. Constitutional Norms: The basic norm from which all other rules and authorities flow is called the Constitution. It is the document that constitutes a nation’s tenets. The Indian Constitution is India’s basic norm. All other laws are made as per the procedures the Constitution prescribes. These laws are made and implemented by the authorities specified by the Constitution.

III. Interpretation to laws and Social Justice: Hierarchy of courts (which too are authorities created by the Constitution interpret the laws when there is a dispute. The Supreme Court is the highest court and the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution. The Supreme Court has enhanced the substance of Fundamental Rights in the Constitution in many important ways.

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In school Panchayat I along with my group of five members will try to do the following works enlisted as below:

(i) Arrangement of the school bus or buses will be done for all students.

(ii) Free passes will be given to SC/ST/ OBC or other poor and deserving students by the school management.

(iii) Proper arrangements for teachers of all subjects, discipline / hobbies / activities / games /and sports will be done for all classes and students.

(iv) Late comers or students coming without prescribed school uniform and trying to break discipline will be taken to discipline committee of the school. Complaints letters to concern parents will be issued and sturn action will be taken against habitual and regular defaultars.

(v) All school labs, geography room, social sciences room, library, computer room, Home Science room, games and sports room, drawing and painting room, medical room, etc, will be cleaned everyday, will be kept well arranged and they will function properly according to desire of students and their needs.

(vi) Special coaching classes arrangement will be made before and after school timing regularly mid-day meal will be provided to all willing students at a reasonable rate.

(vii) In the evening special games and sports programme for indoor school stadium programme will be arranged for games and sports and swimming pool of the school will be properly urtilised under the guidance of proper two coaches-separate for girls and boys at under four bodyguards-two for girls and two for boys.

(viii) To maintain cleanliness, water supply, electricity supply and maintenance of school lawns, plants, trees and garden will be handed over be private agency.

(ix) On every last Sunday terminal comprehensive test (exmination) will be arranged for board classes, (tenth and tenth).

(x) All curricular and extra co-curricular competition programmes will be in the hall of the school and good prizes will be awarded to the deserving students.

Yes, I have heard of about Bal Panchayat and Mazdoor Kisan Sanghathan:

(i) Bal Panchayat: Bal Panchayat is performed in our school. The head boy along with ten other representatives from different classes are elected by the all students of the school. Head boy is elected only from outgoing class i.e., senior most class 10+2 of our school. They meet on every last day of month in the presence of their principal and some nominee of PT also. The head boy present problems of students such as shortage of teacher, shortage of books, shortage of games and sports material, equipment and material related with all labs (Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Home Science, Yoga, etc.) Some times matter related with careless teacher is also taken with the principal and the teacher who do not come to class room with proper proposed lesson and projects are also discussed.

Problems of buses, shortage of water supply, frequently cut off electricity or power cuts, irregular maintance of sanitation and grass lawns of the school are also discussed. Suggestion for school magazine, wall magazines, historical trips, picnics, science fare and exhibition are also planned, discussed and try to materialise all activities and programmes concerning with the staff members, teacher and students are taken up form time to time.

Kissan Sangathan: According to the census of 1951, 83% population of India and according to the census of 1981, 75% people of India used to live in the villages, which are about 6 lakhs in our country. In the villages mainly the peasants (Kissans) are living. The kissans of India have little awareness of class consciousness and they have too much attachment to customs, traditions and their land.

In pre-independent India an attempt was made by the Congress and the Communists to form Kissan Sabhas. Under Jawaharlal Nehru’s Presidentship of Congress in 1936 (Lucknow Session) and on the initiative of Sardar Patel, the All India Kissan Sabha was established.

But soon, enough, due to a conflict of interests between the big and rich farmers and the middle and small peasants, a split occurred. Later the C.P.I. activist assumed in leadership of the Kissan Sabha.

After independence several peasant organizations came up at the all India level. The socialists established the Hind Kissan Panchayat, the the communist (Marxist) set up United Kissan Sabha. A big boost was given to the peasants by the CPI (M) organized Revolutionary Peasants Convention in 1967, ‘which became a forerunner of the peasant militancy exhibited in the Naxalbari Movement in West Bengal. In 1978, the Janta Party, mainly through the efforts of Charan Singh and Raj Narain formed the All India Kissan Kammgar Sammelan. But the Kissan Sabhas of India are not class conscious and well-organized Interest Groups.

Mazdoor Sangathan: Trade unions were established in factories and regions. Efforts were made to organize them at national level also. In 1920 All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was established under Congress influence. In 1929 this fell in the hands of communists. Indian Trade Union Congress (INTUC) linked with Congress, Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) - it is the organization of the Socialists and Bhartiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) - it is the trade union of the former Jana Sangh (Now Bhartiya Janta Party)

The trade union movement in India over the last 50 years or so has definitely come to occupy its own place in Indian social process. Consquently the working class has been able to exert significant pressure at the policy formulation level and their strength is well-recognized by the political parties and the government the trade unions by their activities have also helped in creating social and political awareness among workers. On problems of workers’ demand and interests they do influence their respective.

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I. Amendment: The 73rd amendment to the Constitution except a marginal reference in the Constitution of India in its a portion related to the Directive Principles of the State Policy, panchayat had no Constitutional status. But the position radically changed in 1993, when the 73rd Amendment to the Constitution was passed in the Parliament and received the assent of the President of India.

The amendment is based on the principle of power to the people and provides constitutional guarantee to the panchayats. The salient features of the act are given below:

(i) It recognises panchayats, as institutions of self-government.

(ii) It entrusts panchayats the powers and responsiblities to prepare a plan for economic development and social justice.

(iii) It provides for the establishment of uniform three-tier system of strong panchayats at village, intermediate (block/taluka) and district(zilla) levels for all states having a population of over twenty lakhs.

(vi) It gives guidelines for the structure, power and functions, finance and elections and reservations of seats for the weaker sections at various levels of panchayats.

II Conclusion:

(i) The 73rd Amendment Act to the Indian Constitution has been hailed as a revolutionary step towards establishing grass-root democracy.

(ii) The blueprint provided by the Amendment (of 1993) has now become a reality.

(iii) All the states have passed legislation in conformity with the provisions of the Amendment.

Thus, for the first time in the history of Panchayati Raj system, a high degree of uniformity has been achieved on panchayats.

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Panchayats have been given the power and authorities to enable them to function as institutions of self-government. There are two major areas which have been identified for this purpose. They are:

(i) The preparation of plans for economic development and social justice, and

(ii) The implementation of scheme for economic development and social justice.

The eleventh Schedule of the Constitution has listed some subjects concerninig the above schemes that may be undertaken by Panchayats at different levels. Some major functions are the following:

(1) Functions concerning agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, minor irrigation, watershed development, land improvement, implementation of land reforms undertaken by the state government.

(2) Panchayats had to work for the success of land consolidation, cooperative farming and social forestry also.

(3) Panchayats should work protection, promotion and development of small scale industries and cottage industries.

(4) Panchayats should functions for promotion of khadi.

(5) Panchayats should functions for provision and supply of drinking water, health and sanitation.

(b) Panchayats should undertake rural housing schemes, roads, bridges, etc.

(7) Lighting of streets and rural electrification.

(8) Panchayats should function and undertake poverty alleviation programmes.

(9) Panchayats should work for promoting education including primary and secondary schools. They are authorised to levy collection and appropriate taxes and fees.

(1) Indian Constitution has given democracy to all of us. We are all familiar with the idea that democracy is government of the people, by the people, and for the people. Democracies fall into two basic categories, direct and representative. In a direct democracy, all citizens, without the intermediary of elected or appointed officials, can participate in making public decisions.

(2) Living in city or town or a village we can contact daily or whenever we desire with our representatives to discuss the problems of our area, village / town / city. We can draw the attention of our government through newspaper or mass-media by writing letters or participating on channels or TV.

(3) Our constitution has established secularism. We can participate directly or indirectly in strengthening this national ideal by supporting the people of other community particularly of minority communities by having good relation or extending him or her friendly relation an even financial help an celebrating all festivals together.

(4) Our constitution has decided to make India a welfare state and a sociologist patronist society. We can work hard for economic development of our duties, honestly andpunctually. We should pay all taxes, honestlyand in time. We should operate to protect public and national property.

(5) We should support all those programmes, projects and policies of government which are helpful in bringing social and economic justice in the country. We should support programme like pulse polio, blood donation, eye-donation, etc. We should serve free of cost to neady patient in the hospitals and should participate in relief camps organised for flood or earth or epidemic affected people of India.

C.

The People

B.

A Sovereign Secular Democratic Republic

D.

Minority religions are given special protection

D.

B.N. Rao

B.

States not empowered to initiate amendments

C.

Right to Constitutional Remendies

D.

Democratic Decentralisation

B.

29

D.

Equality of all religions (Serva Dharma Sambhar à¤¸à¤°à¥à¤µ धर्म सम्भार OTR)

C.

Justice

A.

Jawahar Lal Nehru

D.

Backward classes

A.

Santhanam Committee

A.

Elected by the Provincial Assemblies

C.

Equality of status and opportunity

D.

An area is transition from a rural area to an urban area

B.

The Governor of the State can increase the term of 5 years, but cannot reduce the term, under special circumstances.

1. Pressure groups movements cannot be ignored rather they have influenced the political system.
2. Pressure groups influence the decision of the Government.
3. The pressure group cause the legislators/bureaucrats to act in a particular way.

Counter-movement means a social movement opposed to another social movement. Whenever one social movement starts up, another group starts a movement to undermine the active group. For example, environmental issues, Raja Rammohan Roy's campaign against Sati'.

Distinct modes of protest:

• Candlelight and torchlight processions
• Use of black cloth(flags, bands etc )
• Street theatres.
• Satyagraha

1. In 1992, the grassroots democracy or decentralised governance was begun by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment.This act gave constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj Institutions.
2. The 73rd Amendment provided a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj for all states having a population of over 20 lakhs.
3. It has been made mandatory that election to these bodies be conducted every five years.
4. The 73rd Amendment provided reservation for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and 33% seats for women.
5. After the 73rd Amendment, in the elections of 1993-94 80,000 women were brought into the political process in a single election. It was certainly a major step for enfranchising women.

Sources of revenue for the panchayats:
(i) Tax levied on property, profession, animal, vehicles, cess on land, land revenue
and rentals.
(ii) Grants received through Zilla panchayat.

1. If the issue of the close down of factory is taken because it emits toxic waste and affects the health of those around. It is a matter of life, which the constitution protects.
2. The flipside is that the closure will make people jobless. Livelihood is protected by the constitution. However, the constituent assembly was fully aware of this complexity and plurality but was intent on securing social justice as a guarantee.

No doubt Inequality is a hurdle in the working of a democratic institution because of following reasons:
(i) In this unequal and undemocratic social structure, it is not surprising that in many cases, certain members belonging to particular groups, communities, castes of the village are not included or informed about meetings and activities of the village.
(ii) Democratization is difficult to achieve in a society that is plural / diverse.
(iii) Certain members belonging to a particular group are included.
(iv) Decisions in developmental activities are made by a few leaving the rest.
(v) Democratic measures do not work out in practice because inequality is a result of the structural features of the society.

It refers to a process of gradual devolution or transfer of functions, resources and decision- making powers to the lower level democratically elected bodies. It is a system in which the members of a community or group participate collectively in the taking of major decisions.

According to the Constitution, Panchayats should be given powers and authority to function as institutions of self-government. The following powers and responsibility were delegated to the Panchayats:
(i)  To prepare plans and schemes for economic development.
(ii) To promote schemes that will enhance social justice.
(iii) To levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees.
(iv) To help in the devolution of governmental responsibilities, especially that of finances to local authorities.
(v) Social welfare responsibilities of the Panchayats include the maintenance of burning and burial grounds, recording statistics of births and deaths, establishment of child welfare and maternitycentres, control of cattle pounds, propagation of family planning and promotion of agricultural activities.

1. Many tribal areas have had a rich tradition of grassroot democratic functioning. In this regard an example can be given from Meghalaya. Here, all the three major ethnic tribal groups, namely, the Khasis, Jaintias and the Garos have their own traditional political institutions that have existed for hundreds of years.
2. All these political institutions were fairly well-developed and functioned at various tiers, such as the village level, clan level and state level.
3. In the traditional political system of the Khasis each clan had its own council known as the ‘Durbar Kur’ which was presided over by the clan headman.
4. Though there is a long tradition of grassroot political institutions in Meghalaya, a large chunk of tribal areas lie outside the provisions of the 73rd Amendment. This may be because the concerned policy makers did not wish to interfere with the traditional tribal institutions.

Social welfare responsibilities of the Panchayats include the maintenance of burning and burial grounds, recording statistics of births and deaths, the establishment of child welfare and maternity centres, control of cattle pounds, propagation of family planning and promotion of agricultural activities.

1. In a direct democracy, all citizens, without the intermediary of elected or appointed officials can participate in making public decisions.
2. In a representative democracy, citizens elect officials to make political decisions, formulate laws and administer programs for the public good.

1. Nyaya Panchayats have been constituted in some states. They possess the
   authority to hear some petty, civil and criminal cases.
2. They can impose fines but cannot award a sentence. These village courts have often been successful in bringing about an agreement amongst contending parties. They have been particularly effective in punishing men who harass women for dowry and perpetrate violence against them.

Authority of Nyaya Panchayats:
1. Nayaya Panchayats have the authority to hear some petty, civil and criminal cases.
2. Nayaya Panchayats have been very effective in punishing men who harass women for dowry and use violence against them.

Participatory is a system in which the members of a group or community participate collectively in the taking of major decisions.

According to the Constitution, Panchayats should be given powers and authority to function as institutions of self-government. It, thus, requires all state governments to revitalise local representative institutions. The following powers and responsibility have been delegated to the Panchayats:
(i)   To prepare plans and schemes for economic development.
(ii)  To promote schemes that will enhance social justice.
(iii) To levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees.
(iv) To help in the devolution of governmental responsibilities, especially that of finances to local authorities.
    Social welfare responsibilities of the Panchayats include the maintenance of burning and burial grounds, recording statistics of births and deaths, the establishment of child welfare and maternity centres, control of cattle pounds, propagation of family planning and promotion of agricultural activities. The development activities include the construction of roads, public buildings, wells, tanks and schools.

Direct democracy is a form of democracy in which people decide on policy initiatives directly. In a direct democracy, all citizens, without the intermediary of elected or appointed officials, can participate in making public decisions.

A Nyaya Panchayat is a system of dispute resolution at village level in India. Nyaya panchayats can be endowed with functions based on broad principles of natural justice and can tend to remain procedurally as simple as possible.
Authority of Nyaya Panchayats:
(a)  They possess the authority to hear some petty, civil and criminal cases.
(b)  They can impose fines but cannot award a sentence. These village courts have often been successful in bringing about an agreement amongst contending parties. 
(c) They have been particularly effective in punishing men who harass women for dowry and perpetrate violence against them.

A Nyaya Panchayat is a system of dispute resolution at the village level in India. Nyaya panchayats can be endowed with functions based on broad principles of natural justice and can tend to remain procedurally as simple as possible. They can be given civil and minor criminal jurisdiction.

1. Political Party is an organisation established with the aim of achieving governmental power and using that power to pursue a specific programme.
2. In a democratic form of government political parties are key actors, they are based on a certain understanding of society and how it ought to be.