Themes In Indian History Iii Chapter 13 Mahatma Gandhi And The Nationalist Movement

Mahatma Gandhi believed in simple living and high thinking. He did the following to identify himself with the common people of India:

(i) He did not behave like a professional or an intellectual. Rather he mixed with thousands of peasants, workers and artisans.

(ii) He dressed himself like the common men. He also lived like them and spoke their language. He wore simple dhoti or loin-cloth. He did not like to stand apart from the common people. He liked to mix with them, sit and talk with them.

(iii) He worked on the Charkha (spinning wheel) everyday. He also encouraged other nationalists to do the same. In fact he favoured synthesis between mental and manual labour.

(iv) He did not believe in the traditional caste system.

(v) He often spoke in the mother-tongue. 

(a) The peasants venerated Gandhiji referring to him as their “Mahatma”. They believed that he had miraculous powers.

(b) Stories abounded that those who opposed him suffered dire consequences. Rumours spread off how villagers who criticised Gandhiji found their houses falling apart and their crops failing.

(c) In some places peasants believed he had been sent by the king to redress the grievances of the farmers and has the power to overrule the local officials.

(d) In other places peasants believed that Gandhi’s power was superior to that of the English monarch and that with his arrival the British rulers would flee the district.

(e) Thus the popular perception of Gandhi was that of a saviour who would rescue them from high taxes, oppressive officials and restore dignity to and autonomy to their lives.

(a) The salt laws gave the state a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt. This was thus one of the most disliked laws in British India.

(b) Salt was indispensable in any Indian household yet people could not make salt even for domestic use and had to by it from shops at a higher price.

(c) The salt laws deprived the people of the benefits of valuable village industry. Moreover to prevent people from having access to natural salt, tons of salt were destroyed.

(d) Destroying the extra natural salt involved national expenditure and the salt tax itself was a heavy burden on the people.

(e) Thus the salt laws were deeply unpopular and making these laws his target, Gandhi sought to mobilise a wider discontent against British rule.

Contemporary newspapers are an important source for the study of national movement. If we want to know more about our freedom struggle, we must consult both English newspapers as well as newspapers in different Indian languages.

(i) The contemporary newspapers wrote about all the movements launched by Mahatma Gandhi.

(ii) They reported all the important activites, speeches and statements of Mahatma Gandhi.

(iii) They also presented views about what ordinary Indians thought of him.

However the newspapers must be read with care as the views expressed in them can be prejudiced.

Gandhiji used to work on the charkha every day. He made it a symbol of nationalism because of the following reasons:

(i) Charkha symbolised manual labour. Mahatma Gandhi always believed in the dignity of labour. He liked to work with his own hands. However he considered charkha as an exquisite piece of machinery.

(ii) Gandhiji opposed machines as they enslaved human-beings. He adopted charkha as he wanted to glorify the dignity of manual labour and not of the machines and technology.

(iii) Gandhiji believed that charkha could make a man self-reliant as it added to his income.

(iv) The act of spinning at charkha (spinning wheel) enabled Gandhiji to break the boundaries of traditional caste system.

In fact Gandhiji wanted to make charkha as a symbol of nationalism. So he encouraged other nationalist leaders to spin at charkha for some time daily.

Non-cooperation as a form of protest:

(i) Gandhiji decided to start non-cooperation as a unique form of protest in freedom struggle against the imperial British rule. He hoped that by coupling non-cooperation with Khilafat, two major communities, Hindu and Muslim could collectively bring an end to colonial rule. This form was definitely unleased a serge of popular action that was altogether unprecedented in colonial India.

(ii) During Non-Cooperation Movement students stoped going to schools and colleges run by the British Government. Lawyers refuse to attend court.

(iii) The working class went on strike in many towns and cities. According to official figure, there were 396 strikes in 1921 involving six lacks workers and loss of seven million work days.

(iv) The countryside was seething with discontent two. Hill tribes in northern Andhra violated by the forest laws. Farmers in Awadh did not pay taxes. Peasants in Kumaun refused to carry loads of colonial officials. These protest movements were sometimes carried out in defence of the local nationalist leadership.

Peasants, workers and others interpreted and acted upon the call to, “non-cooperate” with colonial rule in ways that best suited their interest, rather than conform to the dictates laid down from above.

(i) The First Round Table Conference was held in November 1930. It did not yield any concrete result as no important Indian leader participated in it. So Mahatma Gandhi was released in January, 1931 and the Round Table Conference was held in February, 1931.

It was attended by Mahatma Gandhi. So it culminated in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. Under this Pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to call off his Civil Disobedience Movement. The British agreed to release all the prisoners. They also agreed to allow the manufacture of salt along the sea-coast. Many leaders criticised this pact as it did not say anything about the complete independence of India.

(ii) The Second Round Table Conference was held in the later part of 1931 at London. Gandhiji attended it on behalf of the Congress. However his claim that Congress represented the whole of India was unacceptable to the Muslim League which claimed to represent the cause of all Muslims. The Princes also did not agree with Gandhi as they believed that the Congress had no stake in their territories. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, a lawyer and thinker, also did not agree with Gandhiji. He states that congress did not represent the people belonging to lowest castes. So this conference remained inconclusive.

Unsuccessfulness or inconclusiveness of the Round Table Conferences:

The Conferences in London were inconclusive, so Gandhiji returned to India and resumed civil disobedience. The new Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, was deeply unsympathetic to the Indian leaders. Due to unfairly attitude of the British Government, stubbornness of Muslim League and wrong attitude of princely states, rulers as well as of Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar, Gandhiji could not success in his mission and he reached Bombay with empty hands.

Gandhiji transformed the nature of the national movement by the following thoughts, methods, ideology, working styles, movements, etc.
(a) Gandhiji returned in January 1915 from South Africa and till the last day of his life (30 January 1948) conveyed his philosophy and main principles through various mediums. The main principles of his philosophy or fundamental principle were–(i) Satyagrah, (ii) Non-violence, (iii) Peace, (iv) True sympathy for the poorest, (v) Empowerment of the lady, (vi) Communal harmony, (vii) Indian rural area and to think about interest of the people residing in villages and to motivate the other people to think, to act and to inspire resourceful and influential high up of the society in favour of downtrodden.

(b) To stress importance of cottage industry, charkha, spinning wheel, khadhi, etc were stressed to be adopted and favour by all Indians. He oppose to colour discrimination and racial discrimination alike. He put a dress of ordinary people and use language and dialect use by the common men of the Indian society as far as possible. He published the Harijan newspaper and wrote in different newspapers, journals and very simple English (language) as well as Indian languages also.

(b) When Gandhiji returned to motherland in 1915, infact that time still Indian National Congress was confined in only urban areas and upto people of middle educated classes. Its influence was limited upto some towns and cities. Gandhiji knew very well that India is a country of villages. Its natural power rests with the rural people, labour, ordinary men and women, and young boys and girls till all sections and people of Indian society would not join freedom struggle against the colonial British power then it would be very difficult to finish British authority from India in peaceful non-violent movement, Satyagrah, procession, writing articles etc.

(c) Gandhi through his speeches, writing articles in magazines-newspapers and books expressed the colonial power that they have rewarded India throughout spreading poverty, hunger, low quality of life, illiteracy, superstitions and social disunity and disharmony Only British rule is responsible for all these ills of India because the British have not exploited India politically since years and years together but they have also exploited India economically, socially, culturally and spiritually also.

(d) Gandhiji also knew very well that till he would not rise his voice in favour of farmers, labourers and ordinary people and against foreign government till then they would not extend their full cooperation to the nationalists.

I. Private letters and autobiographies tell us about an individual:

(i) They tell us in which language letters and autobiographies had been written. After reading the letters and autobiographies we come to know about the language level or standard of that individual. It also tell us about the style used by that man. These letters tell us about to whom he has written and who has replied him or her letters. The writings between the individual or that person and any governmental or other institution tell us about the relations between two persons or an individual and government or an agency or an organisation.

(ii) Autobiographies are generally depict about life story of that individual. We come to know about his birth place, name of the parents, date of birth, his or her family background or status, about his education and educational institutions. Autobiography also tell us about interest and hobby of that person.

(iii) We also come to know about his interest or taste, preferences, problems, up and downs he or she has faced during his or her life, events related with individuals life etc.

(iv) Individual letters which have been written by great leaders such as by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Pt. Jawahar Lai Nehru, Sardar Ballabhbhai Patel, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Bhagat Singh, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, definitely all these individual letters are very authentic and important sources of history of that time and about their programmes, ideas, philosophy etc. Our great leaders have written individual letters to heads of other countries, political organisations, leaders and so on. Definitely they give us a clear picture about their attitude and thoughts about international events, revolutions movements and so on.

II. Difference between individual or private letters and autobiographies from official accounts:

(i) Definitely official accounts are prepare by some commission or special officers or surveyers appointed by government with specific aims or objections to submit reports or to maintain records for a specific purpose and period. All Government descriptions or accounts are maintain secracy. They kept as secret records. Generally these records cannot by published completely without the written permission of government.

(ii) Generally private letters are published with the permission of an individual. Similarly autography may be written and published side by side if an individual desires so. However if an individual desires to maintain secracy about his private letter or autobiography it is upto concern individual.The contents or truthfulness of facts mention in private letters and autobiographies totally depend on individual honesty, impartiality and his liking to write all descriptions with truth.

For Example, Mahatma Gandhi was a man of very high standard. He has written his all personal weaknesses in his autobiography.We should keep in mind that all individuals not as great as our father of nation was.

(iii) Every historian had a duty to consult private letter, autobiography as well as official accounts very carefully with a rational thinking.

Dandi March was started from Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad (Gujarat). The route was from Ahmedabad to Baroda and Baroda to Surat. We have use with in Box 1, 2, 3, to indicate the Dandi expedition route.

Self study by the students:

Hint. Students may be write some events related with the Civil Disobedience Movement which was launched by Gandhiji during freedom struggle in 1930. You can consult your textbook page no. 371 and 372. On these pages some secret reports related with various provinces have been published.

You should be very careful while using the contents given within the reports and you should not accepts each and every word as truth or the last word of the god because always remember that old secret reports are written as direction provided by very high officials with biased attitude. Even then government actions and the knowledge about those nationalist leaders who had been affected by contents of the reports give us detailed reports about the historical events and happenings.

British Government was very cunning. They had always an eye an all movements/activities/planning, etc. of our great national leaders and government use to suspect all the developments keeping in view the interest of British rule and empire.

Gandhiji went to Champaran in Bihar to provide the protection to the peasants of that resion who were getting harsh treatment from British indigo planters. Gandhiji spent much of 1917 in Champaran, seeking to obtained for the peasant security of tenure as well as freedom to cultivate crops of their choice.

Gandhiji was release from prison in February 1924. He chose to devote his attention to the promotion of home-spun cloth (khadi) and abolition of untouchability. For Gandhiji was much a social reformer as he was a politician. He believed that in order to be worthy of freedom. Indians had get rid of social evils such as child marriage and untouchability. Indians of one faith had also to cultivate a genuine tolerance for Indians of another hence his emphasis on Hindu-Muslim harmony.

Gandhiji told in one village, Wasna the upper castes that “if you are out for Swaraj you must serve untouchables. You won’t get Swaraj merely by the repeal of the salt taxes or other taxes. For Swaraj you must make amends for the wrongs which you did to the untouchables. For Swaraj, Hindus, Muslims, Parsis and Sikhs will have to unite. These are the steps towards Swaraj.”

(i) It was the first nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers. The socialist activist Kamaladevi Chottopadhyay had persuaded Gandhiji not to restrict the protests to men alone. Kamaladevi was herself one of numerous women who courted arrest by breaking the salt or liquor laws.

(ii) Perhaps most significant it was the Salt March which forced upon the British the realisation that their Raj would not last forever and that they would have to devolve some power to the Indians.

(i) The British government refused to accept the demand for immediate transfer of effective power to Indians.
(ii) On the other hand, the Indian leaders could not be satisfied by more promises for the future while the Viceroy retained his autocratic power in the present. The Congress rejected the proposals of the Cripps Mission. It asserted that the acceptance of these proposals would meant recognition of two nations theory.
(iii) It would also mean respectability to autocracy and widening of the gulf between British India and princely states and a great set back for the democratic force such as the All India States People Conference.

Higher wages and better working conditions were two main demands of the Ahmedabad Textile Mill workers for which Gandhiji intervened in settling labour dispute.

(a) Gandhiji’s speech at one level was a factual statement i.e., Indian nationalism was elitist in nature, consisting of lawyers, doctors and landlords.

(b) But its real significance was that it was also a statement of intent. It signified Gandhiji’s desire to make the nationalist movement a mass movement.

Lal-Bal-Pal were the prominent leaders of the Swadeshi movement. They were Bal Gangadhar Tilak of Maharashtra, Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab. They advocated militant opposition to colonial rule.

The moderates were peace-loving. They preferred a gradual and persuasive approach towards the British. On the other hand, the extremists advocated militant opposition to the British Rule in India. They wanted to oust the foreign rule by all means.

(i) Belief in the power of truth.

(ii) Search for truth and non-violent protest.

(i) In Champaran region of Bihar (1917)

(ii) In Kheda District of Gujarat (1917)

(iii) In Ahmedabed of Gujarat (1918)

Rowlatt Act was passed on the recommendation of a committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt. It introduced tough measures such as:

(i) Censorship of the press to crush political activities.

(ii) Permission of detention without trial.

Gandhiji believed that the British rule in India depended on the cooperation of the local people. He felt that the foreign rule still existed due to the cooperation of a few natives. Mahatma Gandhi launched the policy of non-cooperation so that he may end the foreign rule and introduce self-rule.

The Indian National Congress approved the programme of non-cooperation in 1920 at its Nagpur session.

(i) To return titles granted by the government.

(ii) To boycott government jobs, army, police, legislative councils and schools.

(iii) Boycott of foreign goods.

(iv) If the government adopted repressive measures, then to launch Civil Disobedience Movement.

Mahatma Gandhi was invoked the ‘father of the nation.’ It was so because he was the most influential and revered leader of all those leaders who participated in the freedom struggle.

Gandhi established his Sabarmati Ashram in 1916. He wanted to teach his pupils the path of truth and non-violence. He also taught them to behave in a truthful and non-violent manner. He also practised his ideology of truth and non-violence in this Ashram.

(i) The British Government passed the Rowlatt Act. Those who opposed this act in a peaceful manner were shot at by the white officers.

(ii) The British Government had adopted a strict stand against the Khilafat Movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi proved quite successful. It has shaked the British Empire to its foundations for the first time since the Revolt of 1857. But in February, 1922 a group of peasants attacked a police station and set it to flames at village Chauri Chaura in Uttar Pradesh. Several policemen were burnt in this fire. Gandhiji felt angry at this violent act. So he called off the movement altogether.

The slogan “Do or Die” was given by Mahatma Gandhi during the Quite India Movement which began in August 1942. At that time, the Second World War was in full swing. It was a sensitive situation for England. Gandhiji realised that the time was ripe for the British to compel them to quite India, So he gave the slogan of “Do or Die” to the people.

The Quit India Movement was the third most important movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi against the British rule. It was a mass movement. A resolution to this effect was passed in the session of the Indian National Congress held at Bombay on 8 August, 1942. Quit India Movement was started after the failure of the Cripps Mission.

Simon Commission visited India in 1928. It came to enquire what kind of conditions prevailed in India.

The Simon Commission was opposed as it had all members from the white community. It had no member from India. It was quite insulting to the Indians. So all the people of India opposed Simon Commission.

The Indian National Congress had passed a resolution for Complete Independence at its Lahore Session in 1929. Gandhiji warned the government : “Either give complete independence or we prepared of Civil Disobedience Movement.” When the government did not accede to his first option, Mahatma Gandhi adopted the path of Civil Disobedience Movement.

On 12 March 1930, Gandhiji began his march for Dandi from his Ashram at Sabarmati. He was accompanied by a large number of his followers. He reached Dandi on 6 April, 1930 and broke the Salt Law by making a fistful of salt. In the same way, laws were broken in the whole country by all the people. This resulted in the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

(i) The government put all the important leaders behind the bars. They included Sardar Patel, Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Subhash Chandra Bose.

(ii) The Indian National Congress was declared an illegal organisation.

The Second Round Table Conference was held at London in 1931. The intent of the government was not clear. So the conference remained a failure. It did not yield any concrete result.

(i) Bardoli, (ii) Wardha, (iii) Kheda, (iv) Champaran, (v) Amritsar.

1. United Province, 2. Central India, 3. Eastern India, 4. Sindh, 5. North-Western India.

1. Peshawar, 2. Karachi, 3. Lahore, 4. Amritsar, 5. Bombay, 6. Calcutta, 7. Delhi, 8. Madras, 9. Ahmedabad, 10. Lucknow, 11. Dacca, 12. Chauri-Chaura, 13. Champaran, 14. Bardoli, 15. Surat, 16. Dandi, and 17. Pune.

(i) Amritsar.

(ii) Champaran (Bihar), Kheda (Gujarat),

(iii) Dandi (a village on coast of Gujarat),

(iv) Bombay (Mumbai), 1942.

(i) British Government introduced Montague-Chelmsford Reforms also known as the Government of India Act, 1919 to pacify the nationalists and Indian masses. This act armed the British Government with arbitrary powers and be use a reason of repression. The Government could arrest any person without reason, search any place without a warrant and imprison one without any trial.

(ii) This act could not meet the expectations and hopes of the Indian masses. These inadequate, unsatisfactory and illusory reforms disillusioned the Indians and spared them to widespread agitations.

(iii) On 8th April, 1919 an all India hartal was observed. Meetings were held throughout the country to show the popular disapproval of the Act and press gave full support to the mass agitation.

(iv) Gandhiji, who had formed a Satyagrah Sabha earlier, called for a country wide protest. Throughout the country, 6 April, 1919 was observed as a National Humiliation Day. There were demonstrations and strikes all over the country. The government resorted to brutal measures to put down the agitation and there were lathi charges and firings at a number of places.

I. Major events:
(i) Mass opposition : Students stopped going to schools and colleges run by the government. Lawyers refused to attend court. The working class went on strike in many towns and cities : according to official figures, there were 396 strikes in 1921, involving 600,000 workers and a loss of seven million workdays. The countryside was see thing with discontent too.

(ii) Expansion of Non-Cooperation Movement : Hills tribes in northern Andhra violated the forest laws. Farmers in Awadh did not pay taxes. Peasants in Kumaun refused to carry loads for colonial officials.

The protest movements were sometimes carried out in defiance of the law. Peasants, workers and others interpreted and acted upon the call to “non-cooperate” with colonial rule in ways that best suited their interests, rather than conform to the dictates laid down from above.

(iii) Calling off Non-Cooperation Movement : In February 1922, a group of peasants attacked and torched a police station in the hamlet of Chauri-Chaura, in the United Provinces several constables perished in the conflagration. This act of violence prompted Gandhiji to call off the movement altogether.

(i) The state monopoly over salt was deeply unpopular, by making it his target, Gandhiji hoped to mobilise a wider discontent against British rule. On 12 March 1930, Gandhiji began walking from his ashram at Sabarmati towards the ocean. He reached his destination three weeks later, making a fistful of salt he did and thereby making himself a criminal in the eyes of the law. Meanwhile parallel salt marches were being conducted in other parts of the country.These participants were reported by news papers, marches were organised, slogans were shouted and meetings were organised at different places at different times.

(ii) As with non-cooperation, apart from the officially sanctioned nationalist campaign, there were numerous other streams of protest. Across large parts of India, peasants breached the hated colonial forest laws that kept them and their cattle out of the woods in which they had once roamed freely. In some towns, factory worker went on strike while lawyers boycotted British courts and students refused to attend government-run educational institutions. These places were used as platform of protest.

(iii) The progress of Gandhiji’s march to the seashore can be traced from the secret reports filed by the police officials deputed to monitor his movements. These reproduce the speeches he gave at the villages on route, in which he called upon local officials to renounce government employment and join the freedom struggle. For Swaraj, Hindus, Muslims, Parsis and Sikhs will have to unite. These are steps towards Swaraj. The police spies reported that Gandhiji’s meetings were very well attended by villagers of all castes, and by women as well as men.

The Quit India Movement of 1942:

1. In March 1942, the Cripps Mission failed as the British were not willing to promise independence for Indians even after the World War and rejected the Congress’s proposal for the formation of a National Government during the war.

2. The Congress now started the third mass movement against the British rule. On August 9,1942, Gandhiji gave the slogan ‘Quit India’.

3. The main features of the Quit India Movement are as under:

Soon after the resolution was passed, the Congress was banned. All the important leaders were arrested. It provoked a wave of indignation among the people throughout the country. There were demonstrations. People resorted to the use of vigilance. The British Government used police and army to suppress the movement. Thousands of people were killed and over 70,000 arrested in less than five months. In this movement the farmers, the labourers, the teachers, the students, the men and the women, the people of rural as well of urban areas participated in a great number.

4. Despite several atrocities of the British Government to crush the movement, the people continued the struggle for freedom. It is a manifestation of their faith and courage against the British imperialists.

The British had fought against the Sultan of Turkey in the First World War. They had also sought cooperation of the Indian Muslims in this war. The Muslims of India had cooperated with the British on the condition that the Sultan of Turkey would be given a fair treatment by the British after the war is over. But after the end of the war, the British maltreated the Sultan. The Muslims considered the Sultan as the Caliph (religious leader). So they felt annoyed. They started a vehement movement against the colonial rule. This movement was known as the Khilafat Movement. The Muslims carried on the movement with the cooperation of Gandhiji.

(i) In 1927, the Government of England appointed a commission. It was headed by Sir John Simon. That is why, it was called as the Simon Commission. This commission came to India in 1928. Its objective was to examine the results of the reforms of 1919. It was an all-white commission having no Indian member. So people in India opposed it. Wherever it went, it was welcomed with black flags. Every where slogans like “Simon Go Back” were raised. But the British Government adopted all repressive measures to crush this peaceful protest.

(ii) In Lahore, the protestors were lathi-charged by the police in which Lala Lajpat Rai was wounded. He had a blow of lathi on his forehead which proved fatal. He died a few days afterwards. All the political parties of the country severely criticised these repressive measures of the British Government. Gandhi himself did not participate in the protests against the Simon Commission. However he had blessed all the peaceful protestors.

(i) The Civil Disobedience Movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930. He wanted to oppose the colonial rule by breaking laws framed by it. This movement started with the Salt Satygraha (Dandi March) organised by Mahatma Gandhi. He began walking on 12 March 1930 from his Sabarmati Ashram. He was accompanied by thousands of people on his way. He reached his destination, that is, Dandi at the sea-coast within twenty four days. He made a fistful of salt to break the salt laws. He intentionally made himself a criminal in the eyes of the law.

(ii) The British Government took all stringent measures to crush this Civil Disobedience Movement. Thousands of patriots were put behind the bars all over the country. Gandhiji was arrested. But even after his arrest, the movement went on as before. So this Civil Disobedience Movement left a deep impact on our national struggle for freedom.

The Cripps Mission was sent to India by the British Government under the leadership of Sir Stafford Cripps in 1942. It made the following recommendations:

(i) It recommended to make India a Dominion State after the end of the Second World War.

(ii) To frame a new constitution for India, a Constituent Assembly would be constituted. It will have all elected members.

(iii) The provinces which did not agree to the constitution would retain their present position.

(iv) In the new constitution, there would also be a provision to enable the princely states to participate. However these states would not be bound by the new constitution.

(v) After the formation of a constitution, there would be a treaty between Britain and India to chalk-out a frame-work for the transfer of political power.
(vi) The British also ensured protection of the minorities in the new system.

(i) The increase in nationalist sentiments which developed as a result of the Home Rule Movement led the Government to introduce the Rowlatt Act in 1919.

(ii) This Act enables the Government to imprison any person without trial and conviction in a court of law. Even mere possession of nationalist literature could lead to imprisonment. These provisions aroused indignation.

(iii) In response, Gandhiji organised the Rowlatt Satyagraha Sabha which launched a nationwide hartal accompanied by fasting and prayers. This movement had an immense response all over India. Thus the Rowlatt Act changed the political atmosphere in the country and a conflict between the government and Indian nationalists seemed imminent.

The following rumours spread by the people regarding the miraculous powers of Gandhiji:

1. In some places it was said that he had been sent by the king to redress the grievances of the farmers and that he had the power to overrule all local officials.

2. In other places it was claimed that Gandhiji’s power was superior to that of the English monarch and that with his arrival the colonial rulers would flee the district. There were also stories reporting dire consequences for those who opposed him. Rumours spread of how villagers who criticised Gandhiji found their houses mysteriously falling apart or their crops failing.

1. The Second World War started in September, 1939. With the outbreak of the war, the British Government made India a party to the war without consulting the Indian people. The Indian National Congress demanded that a national government should be immediately formed and that Britain should promise that India would become independent as soon as the war would be over.

2. The British Government refused to meet this demand. The Congress ministries that had been formed in (1937) the provinces resigned in November, 1939. There were strikes and demonstrations in various parts of the country against the dragging of India into the war.

(i) When Gandhiji came back to India in 1915, then India was quite different from the one which he had left in 1893. Now the Indian National Congress had its branches in most of the Indian towns and cities. I.N.C. had greatly broadened its appeal among general masses through the Swadeshi Movement of 1905-07.

(ii) At one level, Gandhiji’s speech of Banaras in February 1916 was a statement of fact. It was so because elite class of lawyers, doctors and landlords alone represented the Indian nationalism. But at another level his statement was showing his intent because he gave stress that Indian nationalism should properly represent the Indian people as a whole.

(i) As it happened, Mahatma Gandhi was not present at the festivities in the capital on 15 August 1947. He was in Calcutta, but he did not attend any function or hoist a flag there. Gandhiji marked the day with a 24 hour fast. The freedom he had struggled so long for had come at an unacceptable price, with a nation divided and Hindus and Muslims at each other’s throats.

(ii) Many scholars have written of the months after independence as being Gandhiji’s “finest hour”. After working to bring peace in Bengal, Gandhiji now shifted to Delhi, from where he hoped to move on to the riottorn districts of Punjab. While in the capital, his metings were disrupted by refugees who objected to readings from the Koran, or shouted slogans asking why he did not speak of the sufferings of those Hindus and Sikhs still living in Pakistan.

I. Causes and contribution of Non-Cooperation Movement :

(i) It was the Rowlatt Satyagraha that made Gandhiji a truly national leader. Emboded by its success, Gandhiji called for a campaign of “non-cooperation” with British rule. Indians who wished colonialism to end were asked to stop attending schools, colleges and law courts, and not pay taxes. In sum, they were asked to adhere to a “renunciation of (all) voluntary association with the (British ) Government”.

(ii) If non-cooperation was effectively carried out, said Gandhiji India would win swaraj within a year.

(iii) Students stopped going to schools and colleges run by the government. Lawyers refused to attend court. The working class went on strike in many towns and cities: according to official figures, there were 396 strikes in 1921, involving 600,000 workers and a loss of seven million workdays. The countryside was see thing with discontent too.

(iv) “Non-co-operation, “wrote Mahatma Gandhi’s American biographer Louis Fisher, “became the name of an epoch in the life of India and of Gandhiji. Non-co-operation was negative enough to be peaceful but positive enough to be effective. It entailed denial, renunciation, and self-discipline. It was training for self-rule.

(v) Hill tribes in northern Andhra violated the forest laws. Farmers in Awadh did not pay taxes. Peasants in Kumaun refused to carry loads for colonial officials.

(vi) The protest movements were sometimes carried out in defiance of the local nationalist leadership. Peasants, workers, and others interpreted and acted upon the call to “non-cooperate” with colonial rule in ways that best suited their interests, rather than conform to the dictates laid down from above.

(vii) As a consequence of the Non-Cooperation Movement the British Raj was shaken to its foundations for the first time since the Revolt of 1857.

(viii) In February 1922, a group of peasants attacked and torched a police station in the hamlet of Chauri Chaura, in the United Provinces (Now, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand), several constables perished in the conflagration. This act of violence prompted Gandhiji to call off the movement altogether.

II. Gandhiji and Khilafat Movement

Gandhiji believed in secularism and communal harmony. He wanted to get the maximum cooperation of Muslim community. Therefore he compiled Non-Cooperation Movement with Khilafat Movement. He join hand with the Khilafat committee that committee sought to restore the caliphate, a symbol of pan-Isoanoism which had recently been abolished by the Turkish ruler Kemal Attaturk.

Wherever Gandhiji went, rumours spread of his miraculous powers. In some places it was said that he had been sent by the king to redress the grievances of the farmers and thathe had the power to over rule all local officials. In other places it was claimed that Gandhiji’s power was superior to that of the English monarch, and that with his arrival the colonial rulers would fee the district. There were also stories reporting dire consequences for those who offered him, rumours spread of how villagers who criticized Gandhiji found their houses mysteriously falling apart or their crops failing.

Known vaiously as “Gandhi baba,” “Gandhi Maharaj”, or simply as “Mahatma”, Gandhiji appeared to the Indian peasant as a saviour, who

would rescue them from high taxes and oppressive officials and restore dignity and autonomy to their lives. Gandhiji’s appeal among the poor, and peasants in particular, was enhanced by his ascetic life-style and by his shrewd use of symbols such as the dhoti and the charkha.

Mahatma Gandhi was by caste a merchant by profession a lawyer; but his simple lifestyle and love of working with his hands allowed him to empathise fully with the labouring poor and for them, in turn, to empathize with him. Where most other politicians talked down to them, Gandhiji appeared not just to look like them but to understand them and relate to their lives.

While Mahatma Gandhi’s mass appeal was undoubtedly genuine and in the context of Indian politics, with precedent it must also be stressed that his success in broadening the basis of nationalism was based on careful organization. New branches of the Congress were set-up in various part of India.

A series of “Pooja Mandals” were established to promote the nationalist creed in the princely states. Gandhiji encouraged the communication of the nationalist message in the mother tongue, rather than in the language of the rulers, English. Thus the provincial committees of the Congress were based on linguistic regions, rather than on the artificial boundaries of British India. In these different ways nationalism was taken to the farthest corners of the country and embraced by social groups previously untouched by it.

By now, among the supporters of the Congress were some very prosperous businessmen and industrialists, Indian entrepreneurs were quick to recognize that in a free India, the farmers engaged by their British competitiors would come to an end. Some of these entrepreneurs, such as G.D. Birla, supported the national movement openly; others did so tacitly. Thus among Gandhiji’s admirers were both poor peasants and rich industrialists, although the reasons why peasants followed Gandhiji were somewhat different from, and perhaps opposed to, the reasons of the industrialists.

(a) We come to know about Gandhiji through his writings and speeches and that of his contemporaries. Mahatma Gandhi also regularly published in his journal, Harijan letters that other wrote to him. Nehru edited a collection of letters written to him during the national movement and published ‘A Bunch of Old Letters’.

(b) Another vital source is government records for the British kept a close watch on Gandhi’s activities. The letters and reports written by policemen and other officials are now accessible to the public.

(c) Yet another important sources were the contemporary newspapers published in English as well as the vernaculars which tracked Gandhiji’s movements and reported on his activities. They also stated what the common man thought of him.

(d) But newspaper accounts could be prejudiced or biased. This was because they were published by people who had their own political opinions and world views.

(e) These views shaped what was published and the way events were reported. Accounts published in a London newspaper would be different from a report in an Indian nationalist paper. For example the progress of the salt march can be traced through an American news magazine- The Time. At first this magazine scorned Gandhiji’s physical appearance and were sceptical of the salt march reached its destination. But as the march gathered a massive following, The Time magazine changed its attitude declaring that the salt march had made the British authorities very worried, the magazine went on to salute Gandhiji as a saint and a great statesman.

(f) Moreover official accounts often expressed what the higher officals wanted to believe.

(g) While being aware of the possibilities of a rebellion occurring, they would still like to pretend that nothing was amiss.

(h) A study of the fortnightly reports of the Dandi March shows that the Home Department was unwilling to believe that Gandhiji’s actions had evoked any enthusiastic response from the masses. The march was seen as a drama or a desperate effort to mobilise people who were unwilling to rise against the British.

The Civil Disobedience Movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930. It was a mass movement based on truth and nonviolence. It was the first important step taken towards complete independence from the British rule after the Revolt of 1857. We can discuss its various aspects as under:

(a) Causes:

(i) The Simon Commission visited India in 1928. It was an all-white commission. In other words, it had no member from India. So the people opposed Simon Commission wherever it went. They raised the slogans of “Go Back” before the Simon Commission. Inspite of this, the report of the commission was published. It spread discontent among the people.

(ii) The British Government did not accept the recommendations of the Nehru Report.

(iii) The Peasants Movement of Bardoli had succeeded. It inspired Gandhi to start a national movement against the British rule.

(iv) Gandhiji put forward a few conditions before the British Government. But Viceroy did not accept any of them. Under these circumstances, Gandhi had no option other than starting Civil Disobedience Movement against the British rule.

(b) The Progress of Movement : The Civil Disobedience Movement started with Dandi March. Mahatma Gandhi started his journey from Sabarmati Ashram on 12 March, 1930 and reached Dandi, a place near sea-coast on 6 April, 1930. He made a fistful of salt from the sea water and broke the salt laws. From there, this movement spread to each nook and corner of the country. At many places, the people defied the government laws. To crush this movement, the British adopted repressive measures. Many people along with Gandhiji were put behind the bars. But it did not dampen the vigour of the people and the pace of the movement.

However a compromise was reached between Gandhiji and the Viceroy. According to this agreement, Gandhiji accepted to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement and take part in the Second Round Table Conference. In this way, the Civil Disobedience Movement came to a halt for sometime.

(c) Causes for Failure : The following reasons were responsible for the failure of the Civil Disobedience Movement :

(i) Some scholars feel that this movement could not utilise the enthusiasm of the common people. It was suspended in between which dampened its pace.

(ii) The Congress did not put forward any social and economic programme. As a result, a new party emerged which was named as Congress Socialist Party.

(iii) This movement did not benefit the farmers in any way.

(iv) Some scholars feel that the leadership of this movement was in the hands of the rich. Besides it had limited objectives.

(d) Significance : Inspite of a few shortcomings, the Civil Disobedience Movement yielded good results :

(i) Because of the boycott of foreign cloth, the import of such cloth declined.

(ii) Because of picketing at wine shops, the collection of government revenue was reduced.

(iii) The Indians were permitted to make salt near the sea-coast.

(iv) An awakening was seen among the farmers, labourers, tribal people and women. All these people had become an inseparable part of national movement.

(v) Because of the atrocities committed by the British, the people were determined to attain freedom.

(vi) The British Empire got a severe jolt.

The Quit India Movement started on 9 August, 1942. The main reason for its beginning was that during the Second World War, Japan had occupied Burma. It was feared that Japan might attack India to harm the British interests. At this time, Congress passed a resolution to start the Quit India Movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. This resolution was passed as many leaders of the Congress felt that Japan would not attack India if the British left it. Besides the resolution for Quit India Movement, the Congress also resolved not to accept anything less than complete independence for India.

Beginning and Progress of the Movement : The Quit India Movement was started on 9 August, 1942 under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. He challenged the British to quit India. Soon after there were slogans of “Quit India” all over the country. The British put their full might to repress this movement. Most of the political leaders were arrested. It infuriated the people who started plundering government offices, railway stations and post offices. The British became more adamant and they put innumerable people behind the bars. The whole country was turned into a prison. Till February, 1943, the Quit India continued with success. But after that, it lost its momentum because of the repressive policy of the government. It came to an end slowly and steadily.

Significance : Quit India was really a mass movement. It had the participation of lakhs of ordinary people. The British officials had also realised how wide was the discontent among the people against them and their rule. They came to know that the ultimate goal of all the Indians was complete independence from the British rule. No doubt the British crushed the movement but it failed to crush the spirit for freedom inherent in the hearts of the common people. So great was the impact of this movement that the British had free India within three years from the end of this historic movement.

Ideas expressed by Gandhiji at Banaras Hindu University:

(i) Gandhiji’s first major public appreance in India was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916. When his turn came to speak (in the function of BHU) Gandhiji charged the Indian elites with a lack of concern for the labouring poor. The opening of the BHU, he said was, “certainly a most gorgeous show”. But he worried about the contrast between the “richly bedecked noblemen” present and “millions of the poor” Indians who were absent.

(ii) Putting of precepts into practice by M. K. Gandhi:

(a) Gandhiji favoured in the opening of the BHU as it was an occasion for celebration, marking as it did the opening of a nationalist university, sustained by Indian money and Indian initiative. But rather than adopt a tone of self-congratulation, Gandhiji chose instead to remind those present of the peasants and workers who constituted a majority of the Indian population.

(b) Gandhiji at Champaran in favour of farmers : In the last month of that year, Gandhiji was presented with an opportunity to put his precepts into practice. At the annual Congress, held in Lucknow in December 1916, he was approached by a peasant from Champaran in Bihar, who told him about the harsh treatment of peasants by British indigo planters.

(iii) Gandhi as a leader of masses or of the people : By 1922, Gandhi had transformed Indian nationalism, thereby deeming the promise he made in his BHU speech of February 1916. It was no longer a movement of professionals and intellectuals, now hundreds of thousands of peasants, workers and artisans also participated in it. Many of them venerated Gandhiji, referring to him as their Mahatma.

The Indians appreciated the fact that he dressed like them, lived like them, and speak their language. Unlike other leaders he did not stand apart from the common folk, but empathised and even identified with them.

(iv) Gandhiji’s constructive work:

(a) Mahatma Gandhi was released from prison in February 1924, and now chose to devote his attention to the promotion of home-spun cloth (khadi) and the abolition of untouchability. For, Gandhiji was as much a social reformer as he was a politician. He believed that in order to be worthy of freedom.

(b) Indians had to get rid of social evils such as child marriage and untouchability. Indians of one faith had also to cultivate a genuine tolerance for Indians of another–hence his emphasis on Hindu-Muslim harmony.

(c) Meanwhile, on the economic front Indians had to learn to become self-reliant hence his stress on the significance of wearing khadi rather than mill-made cloth imported from overseas.

I. Salt Satyagraha:

(i) Soon after the observance of this “Independence Day” (it means 26 January, 1930) Mahatma Gandhi announced that he would lead a march to break one of the most widely disliked laws in British India, which gave the state a monopoly in the manufacture and sale of salt.

(ii) The state monopoly over salt was deeply unpopular, by making it his target, Gandhiji hoped to mobilise a wider discontent against British rule. On 12 March, 1930, Gandhiji began walking from his ashram at Sabarmati towards the ocean. He reached his destination three weeks later, making a fistful of salt he did and thereby making himself a criminal in the eyes of the law. Meanwhile parallel salt marches were being conducted in other parts of the country.

(iii) The progress of Gandhiji’s march to the seashore can be traced from the secret reports filed by the police officials deputed to monitor his movements. These reproduce the speeches he gave at the villages on route, in which he called upon local officials to renounce government employment and join the freedom struggle.

II. Importance of Salt March : The Salt March was notable for at least three reasons :

(i) It was this event that first brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention. The March was widely covered by the European and American press.

(ii) It was the first nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers. The socialist activist Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay had persuaded Gandhiji not to restrict the protests to men alone. Kamaladevi was herself one of numerous women who courted arrest by breaking the salt or liquor laws.

(iii) Perhaps most significant, it was the Salt March which forced upon the British the realisation that their Raj would not last forever, and that they would have to devolue some power to India.

III. Government’s Reaction : British Government take stringent measures to crush the movements of people. Thousand of nationalists were but behind the bars all over the country. Gandhiji was arrested. So, Salt March left a deep impact on our national struggle for freedom.

There are many different kinds of sources from which we can reconstruct the political career of Gandhiji and the history of the nationalist movement.

(a) Public voice and private scripts : One important source is the writings and speeches of Mahatma Gandhi and his contemporaries, including both his associates and his political adversaries.

(b) Framing a picture : Autobiographies similarly give us an account of the past that is often rich in human detail. But here again we have to be careful of the way we read and interpret autobiographies. We need to remember that they are retrospective accounts written very often from memory. They tell us what the author could recollect.

(c) Through police eyes : Another vital source is government records, for the colonial rulers kept close tabs on those they regarded as critical of the government. The letters and reports written by policemen and other officials were secret at the time but now can be accessed in archives.

(d) From newspapers : One more important source is contemporary newspapers, published in English as well as in the different Indian languages, which tracked Mahatma Gandhi’s movements and reported on his activities, and also represented what ordinary Indians thought of him.

Private Letters:

(i) Definitely official accounts are prepared by some commission or special officers or surveyors appointed by government with specific aims or objections to submit reports or to maintain records for a specific purpose and period. All Government descriptions or accounts are maintain secrecy. They kept as secret records. Generally these records cannot by published completely without the written permission of government.

(ii) Generally private letters are published with the permission of an individual. Similarly autography may be written and published side by side if an individual desires so. However, if an individual desires to maintain secrecy about his private letter or autobiography it is upto concern individual. The Contents or truthfulness of facts mention in private letters and autobiography totally depend on individual honesty, impartiality and his liking to write all descriptions with truth.

Gandhiji from 1915-1920 and transformation of Indian Nationalism:

(i) In returning from South Africa, on Gokhale’s advice, Gandhiji spent a year travelling around British India, getting to know the land and its people. His first major public appearance was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916.

The opening of the BHU was an occasion for celebration, marking as it did the opening of a nationalist university, sustained by Indian money and Indian initiative. But rather than adopt a tone of self-congratulation, Gandhiji chose instead to remind those present of the peasants and workers who constituted a majority of the Indian population.

(ii) Gandhiji at Champaran (Bihar) : In the last month of that year, Gandhiji was presented with an opportunity to put his precepts into practice. At the annual Congress, held in Lucknow in December 1916, he was approached by a peasant from Champaran in Bihar, who told him about the harsh treatment of peasants by British indigo planters. Mahatma Gandhi was to spend much of 1917 in Champaran, seeking to obtain for the peasants security of tenure as well the freedom to cultivate the crops of their choice.

(iii) The following; year, 1918, Gandhiji was involved in two campaigns in his home state of Gujarat. First, he intervened in a labour dispute in Ahmedabad, demanding better working conditions for the textile mill workers. Later on Gandhiji joined peasants in Kheda in asking the state for the remission of taxes following the failure to their harvest.

These intiatives in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda marked Gandhiji as a nationalist with a deep sympathy for the poor.

(iv) Later on Gandhiji called for a countryside campaign against the “Rowlatt Act”. Gandhiji was detained while proceeding to the Punjab, even as prominent local Congressmen were arrested.

The situation in the province grew progressively more tense, reaching a bloody climax in Amritsar in April 1919, when a British General ordered his troops to open fire on a nationalist meeting. More than four hundred people were killed in what is known as the Jallianwalan Bagh Massacre.

(v) It was the Rowlatt Satyagraha that made Gandhiji a truly national leader. Embodied by its success, Gandhiji called for a campaign of “non-cooperation” with British rule. Indians who wished colonialism to end were asked to stop attending schools, colleges and law courts, and not pay taxes. In sum, they were asked to adhere to a “renunciation of (all) voluntary association with the (British) Government.”

Thus Gandhiji turned Indian masses towards a fierce battle against the British.

1. There was widespread discontent throughout the country. In the midst of this discontent, the government resorted to new measures of the repression. In March 1919, the Rowlatt Act was passed. This was based on the report of the Rowlatt Commission. The Assembly had opposed it. Many leaders who were members of the Assembly, resigned in protest. Mohammad Ali Jinnah, in his letter of resignation, said “The government that passes or sanctions such a law in times of peace forfeits its claim to be called a civilized government.” It empowered the government to put people in jails without any trial. The passing of this Act aroused the indignation of the people. The new measures of repression were condemned as Black Act.

2. Gandhiji, who had formed a Satyagrah Sabha earlier, called for a country wide protest. Throughout the country 6 April, 1919 was observed as a National Humiliation Day. There were demonstrations and strikes all over the country. All business throughout the country came to a standstill. Such protests of a united

people had never been witnessed at any time in India before. The government resorted to brutal measures to put down the agitation and there were lathi charges and firings at a number of places.

3. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre : In the midst of the repression, a ghastly massacre took place at Amritsar. On 10th April, 1919, two nationalist leaders Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested. There is a small park in Amritsar called of Jallianwala Bagh. The park is enclosed on three sides by high walls. A narrow

lane leads to the park. On 13th April, people gathered there to protest against the arrest of the two leaders. The meeting was peaceful. There were many old men, women and children in the meeting. Suddenly a British Military officer, General Dyer entered the park with his troops. Without even giving a warning to the people to disperse, he ordered his troops to open fire. The troops fired at the unarmed crowd for ten minutes. In those ten minutes, about four hundreds persons were killed and many more wounded.

(i) Mahatma Gandhi was critical of the machines because they enslaved human-beings and displaced labour.

(ii) Mahatma Gandhi gave much importance to Charkha (spinning-wheel). He considered Charkha as a symbol of self-reliant society. According to Gandhiji, Charkha diminished the glory of machines and technology. It signified manual labour. It also provided the poor with supplementary income.

(iii) Gandhiji was against the craze for machinery. He did not consider machines justified on the plea that they saved labour. He was critical of machines because they left thousands of people without work. They made many people die of starvation. Not only this, the machines will lead to the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few capitalists. In fact, Gandhi wanted that wealth should go in the hands of all. So the introduction of machines and technology was not acceptable to Gandhiji.

(iv) According to Gandhiji, Khaddar does not destroy any machinery. On the other hand, it regulates the use of machinery. It checks the weedy growth of machines. It encourages cottage industry. In other words, Gandhiji considered Charkha as a beautiful piece of machinery.

A few months before his death, Mahatma Gandhi reiterated his views on the language question : This Hindustani should be neither Sanskritised Hindi nor Persianised Urdu, but a happy combination of both. It should also freely admit words wherever necessary from the different regional languages and also assimilate words from foreign languages, provided that they can mix well and easily with our national language.Thus our national language must develop into a rich and powerful instrument capable of expressing the whole gamut of human thought and feelings. To confine oneself to Hindi or Urdu would be a crime against intelligence and the spirit of patriotism. HARIJANSEVAK, 12 October 1947.

(i) Examine the views of Gandhiji on the language issue.

(ii) Do you agree with the views of Gandhiji? Give reasons.

(iii) Explain why Hindi and Urdu started growing apart.

Tips: -

(i) This Hindustani should be neither Sanskritised Hindi nor Persinaised Urdu, but a happy combination of both. It should also freely admit words wherever necessary from the different regional languages and also assimilate words from foreign languages, provided that they can mix well and easily with our national language. Thus our national language must develope into a rich and powerful instrument capable of expressing the whole gamut of human thought and feelings.

(ii) Yes, To confine oneself to Hindi or Urdu would be a crime against intelligence and the spirit of patriotism.

(iii) Hindi and Urdu started growing apart because people were restricted to use more of Hindu who were the believers of Hinduism and Muslims were more restricted to use Urdu words. It was a issue of religion and with all the religious fight it has gone apart and people were restricted to their own languages.

1. This excerpt expresses the concern of Mahatma Gandhi about the future partition of India.

2. Mahatma Gandhi gave the following arguments :

(a) The demand for Pakistan, put forward by the Muslim League, was un-Islamic and sinful. Islam stands for the unity and brotherhood of mankind. It is sinful to disrupt the oneness of the human family.

(b) Those who want to divide India into different warring groups, are the enemies of both Islam and India.

(c) They can cut my body to pieces but they cannot compel me to accept what is wrong.

3. Mahatma Gandhi appealed to the Muslim League not to regard nay Indian as its enemy. He stated that the Hindus and the Muslims were born on the same soil. They had the same blood. They ate the same food. They took the same water. They also spoke the same language. So, Mahatma Gandhi exhorted the Muslim League not be prejudiced towards the Indians.

(i) Chauri-Chaura, (ii) Dandi, (iii) Champaran, (iv) Kheda, (v) Amritsar.

Hint : (i) Amritsar (Punjab), (ii) Champaran and Kheda, (iii) Dandi Village, (iv) Bombay.

The significance Salt March for Swaraj:

(i) On 12th March 1930- Gandhiji began the march from his ashram at Sabarmati towards the ocean where he reached after three weeks, making a fistful of salt and thereby breaking colonial salt law.

(ii) Parallel salt marches and protests were also conducted in other parts of the country. Peasants breached the hated colonial forest laws, factory workers went on strike, lawyers boycotted British courts  and students refused to attend goverment run educational institutions. Gandhi’s call had encouraged Indians of all classes to make manifest their own discontent with colonial rule.

(iii) During the March Gandhiji told the upper castes that if they want Swaraj they must serve untouchables. For Swaraj, Hindus , Muslims , Parsis and Sikhs have to unite

(iv) The progress of the salt March can also be traced from another source: the American news magazine, Time. Time magazine was deeply sceptical of the salt march reaching its destination. But within a week it had changed its mind and saluted Gandhi as a ‘saint ‘ and statesman. Time’s writing had made the British rulers “ desperately anxious”.

(v) Salt March was notable for at least three reasons. First, it was  this event that brought Gandhiji to world attention. The march was widely covered by the European and American Press.

(vi) Second, it was the first nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers. Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, the socialist activist had persuaded Gandhiji not to restrict the protest to men alone . She herself was one of numerous women who courted arrest by breaking salt and Liquor Laws.

(vii) Third, and perhaps most significant, it was the Salt March which forced upon the British the realization that their Raj would not last forever , and they would have to devolve some power to the Indians.

(viii) To that end British Government convened a series of Round Table Conferences in London. First meeting was held in Nov 1930 without any pre-eminent political leader in India, thus rendering it an exercise in futility. When Gandhiji was released from jail in Jan 1931,many meetings were held with the Viceroy and it culminated in the ‘Gandhi Irwin Pact’ by which civil disobedience would be called off and all prisoners released and salt manufacture allowed along the coast. Gandhiji represented the congress at Second Round Table Conference at London. The conference in London was inconclusive, so Gandhi returned to India and resumed civil disobedience.

 Note: The following questions are only for the Visually Impaired Candidates in lieu of the Map Question No. 17:
(17.1)  Mature Harappan Sites – Banawali and Kalibangan.

(17.2)  Important places Of Indian National Movement- Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad.

The different kinds of available sources which helped the historians in reconstructing the political career of Gandhiji and the history of the national movement that was associated with it:

(i) Public voice- One important source is the writings and speeches of Mahatma Gandhi and his contemporaries, including both his associates and his political adversaries Speeches, for instance, allow us to hear the public voice of an individual,

(ii) Private scripts- Private letters give us a glimpse of his or her private thoughts. In letters we see people expressing their anger and pain, their dismay and anxiety, their hopes and frustrations in ways in which they may not express themselves in public statements

(iii) Autobiographies- It similarly give us an account of the past that is often rich in human detail. They tell us what the author could recollect, what he or she saw as important, or was keen on recounting, or how a person wanted his or her life to be viewed by others.

(iv) Through police eyes- Another vital source is government records, for the colonial rulers kept close tabs on those they regarded as critical of the government.

(v) From newspapers- One more important source is contemporary newspapers, published in English as well as in the different Indian languages, which tracked Mahatma Gandhi’s movements and reported on his activities, and also represented what ordinary Indians thought of him.

Changes in the urban centres during 18th century:

(i) With political and commercial realignments, old towns went into decline and new towns developed.

(ii) The gradual erosion of Mughal power led to the demise of the old towns associated with their rule.

(iii) The Mughal capitals like Delhi & Agra lost their political authority.

(iv) The growth of new regional powers was reflected in the increasing importance of regional capitals likes Lucknow, Hyderabad, Seringapatam, Poona, Nagpur … etc.

(v) Traders, administrators, artisans etc. migrated from the old Mughal centers to these new capitals in search of work and patronage.

(vi) Continuous warfare between the new kingdoms resulted in mercenaries finding new employment.

(vii) Renewed economic activity in some places and in other places, there was decline in economic activities.

(viii) Some local notables and officials associated with Mughal rule in North India also used this opportunity to create new urban settlements such as the qasbah and ganj

(ix) European commercial companies had setup their base in different places during the early Mughal era.

(x) With the expansion of commercial activity, the towns grew around these trading centres.

OR

The different kinds of available sources which helped the historians in reconstructing the political career of Gandhiji and the history of the national movement that was associated with it:

(i) Public voice- One important source is the writings and speeches of Mahatma Gandhi and his contemporaries, including both his associates and his political adversaries Speeches, for instance, allow us to hear the public voice of an individual,

(ii) Private scripts- Private letters give us a glimpse of his or her private thoughts. In letters we see people expressing their anger and pain, their dismay and anxiety, their hopes and frustrations in ways in which they may not express themselves in public statements

(iii) Autobiographies- It similarly give us an account of the past that is often rich in human detail. They tell us what the author could recollect, what he or she saw as important, or was keen on recounting, or how a person wanted his or her life to be viewed by others.

(iv) Through police eyes- Another vital source is government records, for the colonial rulers kept close tabs on those they regarded as critical of the government.

(v) From newspapers- One more important source is contemporary newspapers, published in English as well as in the different Indian languages, which tracked Mahatma Gandhi’s movements and reported on his activities, and also represented what ordinary Indians thought of him.

The changes:

(i) Although still a colony of the British, it was far more active in a political sense.

(ii) The Indian National Congress now had branches in most major cities and towns. Through the Swadeshi movement of 1905-07 it had greatly broadened its appeal among the middle classes.

Gandhiji was the most influential and revered of all the leaders who participated in the freedom struggle, that characterization is not misplaced.

(i) Mahatma Gandhi’s non-cooperation initiatives in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda had installed nationalistic fervour in every Indian.

(ii) During the Great War of 1914-18, the British had instituted censorship of the press and permitted detention without trial. Now, on the recommendation of a committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt, these tough measures were continued.

(iii) In response, Gandhiji called for a countrywide campaign against the “Rowlatt Act”. In towns across North and West India, life came to a standstill, as shops shut down and schools closed in response to the bandh call. The protests were particularly intense in the Punjab, where many men had served on the British side in the War – expecting to be rewarded for their service.

(iv) The situation in the province grew progressively tenser, reaching a bloody climax in Amritsar in April 1919, when a British Brigadier ordered his troops to open fire on a nationalist meeting. More than four hundred people were killed in what is known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

(v) Emboldened by its success, Gandhiji called for a campaign of “non-cooperation” with British rule. Indians who wished colonialism to end were asked to stop attending schools, colleges and law courts, and not pay taxes. In sum, they were asked to adhere to a “renunciation of (all) voluntary association with the (British) Government”.

(vi) If noncooperation was effectively carried out, said Gandhiji, India would win swaraj within a year. To further broaden the struggle he had joined hands with the Khilafat Movement that sought to restore the Caliphate, a symbol of Pan-Islamism which had recently been abolished by the Turkish ruler Kemal Attaturk

(vii) Gandhiji hoped that by coupling non-cooperation with Khilafat, India’s two major religious communities, Hindus and Muslims, could collectively bring an end to colonial rule. These movements certainly unleashed a surge of popular action that was altogether unprecedented in colonial India.

(viii) During the Non-Cooperation Movement thousands of Indians were put in jail. Gandhiji himself was arrested in March 1922, and charged with sedition.

OR

The significance of the Salt March in India’s Freedom Struggle and the reaction of the British Government:

(i) Soon after the observance of the “Independence Day”, on 26 January 1930, Mahatma Gandhi announced that he would lead a march to break one of the most widely disliked laws in British India, which gave the state a monopoly in the manufacture and sale of salt.

(ii) His picking on the salt monopoly was another illustration of Gandhiji’s tactical wisdom. For in every Indian household, salt was indispensable; yet people were forbidden from making salt even for domestic use, compelling them to buy it from shops at a high price.

(iii) The state monopoly over salt was deeply unpopular; by making it his target, Gandhiji hoped to mobilise a wider discontent against British rule.

(iv) On 12 March 1930, Gandhiji began walking from his ashram at Sabarmati towards the ocean. He reached his destination three weeks later, making a fistful of salt as he did and thereby making himself a criminal in the eyes of the law. Meanwhile, parallel salt marches were being conducted in other parts of the country.

(v) As with Non-cooperation, apart from the officially sanctioned nationalist campaign, there were numerous other streams of protest.

(vi) Across large parts of India, peasants breached the hated colonial forest laws that kept them and their cattle out of the woods in which they had once roamed freely. In some towns, factory workers went on strike while lawyers boycotted British courts and students refused to attend government-run educational institutions.

(vii) The rulers responded by detaining the dissenters. In the wake of the Salt March, nearly 60,000 Indians were arrested, among them, of course, Gandhiji himself.

(viii) Gandhiji told the upper castes that “if you are out for Swaraj you must serve untouchables. You won’t get Swaraj merely by the repeal of the salt taxes or other taxes. For Swaraj you must make amends for the wrongs which you did to the untouchables. For Swaraj, Hindus, Muslims, Parsis and Sikhs will have to unite.

16.1. Salt monopoly was considered a curse because:

i.The public was not allowed to manufacture salt which was a British monopoly

ii. If Indians possessed naturally available salt for which they had not paid tax it would be confiscated and destroyed by the British. Thus, British were destroying the nation’s valuable property.

16.2. Gandhiji illustrated is tactical wisdom by :

i. Choosing salt as a medium of protest as the salt affected the rich and the poor alike.

ii. It was an indispensable item of the Indian household and the salt monopoly had deprived the people of a valuable village industry.

16.3. Significance of Gandhiji’s challenge of salt protest:

i. It brought him to world attention and the event was covered by international press.

ii. Women participated in large numbers. People all over the country broke the salt law.

iii. British realised they could not stay for long in India.

Gandhiji’s finest hours:

(i) Mahatma Gandhi was not present at the festivities in the capital on 15 August 1947. He was in Calcutta, but he did not attend any function or hoist a flag there.

(ii) He “appealed to the Sikhs, the Hindus and the Muslims to forget the past and not to dwell on their on their sufferings but to extend the right hand of fellowship to each other, and to determine to live in peace”.

(iii) At the initiative of Gandhi, India remained a democratic secular State where all citizens enjoy full rights and are equally entitled to the protection of the state, irrespective of the religion to which they belong.

(iv) After working to bring peace to Bengal, Gandhi shifted to move on to the riot-torn districts of Punjab.

(v) He was equally concerned with the sufferings of the minority community in Pakistan.

(vi) He trusted that “the worst is over” that Indians would henceforth work collectively for the “equality of all classes and creeds, never the domination and superiority of the major community over a minor, however insignificant it may be in numbers or influence”.

(vii) Gandhi had fought a lifelong battle for a free and United India.

(viii) When the country was divided, he urged that the two parts respect and befriend one another.

Strengths of the oral testimonies:

(i) Oral narratives, memoirs, diaries, family histories, first hand written accounts - all these help us to understand the trials and tribulations of ordinary people during the partition of the country.

(ii) It helps us to grasp experiences and memories in details.

(iii) It enables historians to write richly textured, vivid accounts of what happened to people during events such as partition.

(iv) Oral history also allows historians to broaden the boundaries of their discipline by rescuing from oblivion the lived experiences of the poor and the powerless.
Weaknesses:

(i) Oral data lacks concreteness and the chronology they yield may be imprecise.

(ii) The uniqueness of personal experience makes generalisation difficult

(iii) A large picture cannot be built from such micro-evidence as one witness is no witness.

(iv) Oral accounts are concerned with tangential issues and are irrelevant to the unfolding of larger processes of history.

The views of Mahatma Gandhi on the question of a ‘National Language’:

(i) Mahatma Gandhi felt that everyone should speak in a language that common people should speak in a language that common people could easily understand.

(ii) Hindustani-a blend of Hindi and Urdu- was a popular language of a large section of the people of India.

(iii) It was a composite language enriched by the interaction of diverse cultures.

(iv) This multi-cultural language, Gandhi thought, would be the ideal language of communication between diverse communities: it could unify Hindus and Muslims, and people of the north and the south.

(17.1) Gandhiji appear as saviour to the Indian peasants because they thought that he would rescue them from high taxes and oppressive officials and restore dignity and autonomy of their lives.
(17.1) Local Newspaper recorded and circulated the rumours of Gandhi miraculous powers.
(17.3) Sikandar Sahu’s karah, full of sugar cane juice in his karkhana had split into two.

Non- Cooperation Movement:

(i) Gandhiji led the people to protest against the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

(ii) He used the mother tongue and not English in communicating nationalist messages

(iii) He took up the Khilafat issue in the Non –Cooperation Movement and demanded Swaraj.

(iv) Renunciation of all voluntary association with the British govt.

(v) He became people’s leader through self-discipline and renunciation.

(vi) He also promoted the concept of self-rule through the charkha.

(vii) Gandhiji displayed a concern for the laboring poor of India, as he believed that salvation for India could come only through the farmers and workers who constituted the majority of the Indian population.(reference to BHU speech)

(viii) He wanted Indian nationalism, from being an elite phenomenon- a creation of lawyers doctors and landlords, to nationalism more suitably representative of the Indian people as a whole.

(ix) He popularised Satyagraha.

(x) Non-Cooperation-a much wider and popular Movement in terms of participation from all sections, widespread over India, participation by both Hindus and Muslims-Khilafat & Non Cooperation, a united challenge to British imperialism like never before under his leadership.

(xi) He popularized Ahimsa

(xii) Gave emphasis on Swadeshi & Boycott

(xiii) Students stopped going to schools and colleges run by the government.

(xiv) Lawyers refused to attend court.

(xv) The working class went on strike in many towns and cities.

(xvi) Hill tribal in northern Andhra violated the forest laws.

(xvii) Farmers in Awadh did not pay taxes.

(xviii) Peasants in Kumaon refused to carry loads for colonial officials.

(xix) He emphasized decentralization through charkha.

(xx) Emergence of Gandhian Nationalism.

(xxi) His language, dressing style and simplicity helped him connect with the masses.

(xxii) Stressed on Hindu Muslim unity, eradication of untouchability, revival of indigenous industries through the symbol of charkha and elevation of the status of women.

(xxiii) The simple practice of Swadeshi and boycott appealed to the people.

(xxiv) Empathised and identified with the common people in dress and lifestyle.

(xxv) He carefully reorganized the Congress by setting up new branches in different parts of the country and Praja Mandals in the Princely States.

(xxvi) A group of highly talented Indians attached themselves to Gandhiji-Mahadev Desai, Vallabh Bhai Patel, J. B. Kriplani, Jawaharlal Nehru and C. Rajgopalachari. All from different regions and religious traditions.

(xxvii) According to American biographer Louis Fischer –“Non Cooperation became the name of an epoch in the life of India and Mahatma Gandhi”.
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