Themes In Indian History Ii Chapter 7 An Imperial Capital : Vijayanagara

An engineer and antiquarian Colonel Colin Mackenzie brought the ruins of Hampi to light in 1800. He was an employee in East India Company. He prepared the first survey map of this site. His initial informations were based on the memories of priest of the Virupaksha temple and shrine of Pampadevi. From 1856 onwards, photographers started to record the pictures of monuments of this site which helped the scholars to study them. Dozens of inscriptions were collected from here and other temples of Hampi.

Historians collected information from these sources, accounts of foreign travellers and other literature written in Kannada,Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit language so that history of the city could be reconstructed.

These functions complemented the information given by priests of Virupaksha temple.

The need of water in Vijayanagara was fulfilled from the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flowed in the northeastern direction. This was surrounded by stunning granite hills which formeu a girdle around the city. These hills were also the source of a large number of streams which flowed down to the river Tungabhadra.

So the rulers of Vijayanagara got built large embankments to store water. They also constricted reservoirs of varying sizes. They also made arrangements to store the rain water as this was the most arid zone of the peninsula. A very large tank was got built in the fifteenth century. It is now called Kamalapuram tank. The water of this tank served the following purposes:

(i)    It irrigated the nearby fields.

(ii)    It fulfilled the needs of the royal centre.

Besides the ruins of the Hiriya canal have also been found. This canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra river. It irrigated the cultivated valley.

A great fortification of Vijayanagara was accomplished in the fifteenth century. It also encircled the agricultural heartland and forests. This encirclement had the following advantages:

(i)    It enclosed agricultural tracts, cultivated fields, gardens and forests.

(ii)    It had an elaborate canal system which drew water from the Tungabhadra.

(iii)    In the medieval period, sieges were laid to starve the defending armies into submission. These sieges lasted for many months or many years. So the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted an elaborate strategy to protect the agricultural belt and build large granaries.

(iv)    This encirclement also saved crops from animals.

Disadvantages:

(i)    This system was very expensive.

(ii)    It was inconvenient to farmers during adverse circumstances.

The Mahanavami Dibba was the king’s palace in Vijayanagara though there is no definite evidence. It had a distinctive structure. It had the largest enclosures. It had a very impressive platform called as “the audience hall.” It was surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them. There were many rituals associated with the Mahanavami dibba. Literally the Mahanavami meant the great ninth day of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October. This period had Dussehra in the northern India, Durga Pooja in Bengal and Navaratri or Mahanavami in peninsular India. The rulers ofVijayanagara displayed their power, prestige and suzerainty on this occasion.

The ceremonies performed on this occasion included:

(i)    Worship of the image.

(ii)    Worship of the state horse.

(iii)    The sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.

(iv)    The main attractions of this occasion were :

(a)    Dances

(b)    Wrestling matches.

(c)    Processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots and soldiers.

All these ceremonies had deep symbolic meanings. Most of them were presented before the king and his guests. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army as well as the armies of the nayakas. He also accepted rich gifts from the nayakas. There was a grand ceremony in an open field.

Given illustration of the pillar from the Virupaksha temple has pictures of plants bearing flowers and different animals-birds. Animals-birds include peacock, horse, duck etc. These pictures were probably carved on gateways to attract people. These pictures also express devotion, religiousness and love for art of patronage ruler.

Except this different animals and birds were associated with different gods and goddesses. That’s why they were also worshipped.

Human pictures include both respectively deities and their worshippers. A god is shown bearing malas and crown. He also has gadda in his hands. Probably he was a destroyer of Rakshashas. In another picture one devotee is shown near to ‘Shivlinga.’ His method of worship is also strange which is not applicable in any form.

(i) I think the term royal centre is an appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used.

(ii) One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre is the Lotus Mahal, so named by British travellers in the nineteenth century. While the name is certainly romantic, historians are not quite sure what the building was used for. One suggestion, found in a map drawn by Mackenzie, is that it may have been a council chamber, a place where the king met his advisers.

(iii)    While most temples were located in the sacred centre, there were several in the royal centre as well. One of the most spectacular of these is one known as the Hazara Rama Temple. This was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family.

(iv)    The images in the central shrine are missing : however, sculpted panels on the walls survive. These include scenes from the Ramayana sculpted on the inner walls of the shrine.

(v)    While many of the structures at Vijayanagara were destroyed when the city was sacked, traditions of building palatial structures were continued by the nayakas. Many of these buildings have survived.

(vi)    The royal centre was located in the southwestern part of the settlement. Although designated as a royal centre, it included over 60 temples. Clearly, the patronage of temples and cults was important for rulers who were trying to establish and legitimise their authority through association with the divinities housed in the shrines.

The architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and Elephant Stables tell us that rulers had adopted traditional Indian symbol, signs and totems. They were Hindus by faith, but they were liberal.

Therefore, the rulers were probably inspired by Indo-Islamic techniques.

Fig. : Lotus Mahal

This figure shows that the combination of architectural features of Indo-Islamic technique have started and had spread almost in all parts of the country. The mixture of culture is an unique feature of India’s heritage.

Elephant stables located very near to the Lotus Mahal of the rulers indicate that the empire had very vast army and troops. They had a large number of elephants in their armies. The economic position of the empire was good because economically a sound state can only maintain huge army and elephants in a large number.

Temples were secret centres of different activities. The rulers were religious-minded. From time to time they use to participate in religious rituals.

The Vijayanagara rulers had to fight many battles and wars with their enemies or neighbours. There were thick forests and during the peace days elephants might have been used to draw very heavy logs from the forest.

Fig : “Elephant stables” located close to the Lotus Mahal

The rulers of Vijayanagara made many innovations in the architectural traditions. They added many new features in the temple architecture. These large structures were a show of their imperial authority. For example, they built gopurams and royal gateways. The towers of the central shrines signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. But the royal gateways surpassed them in height. They reminded the power of the kings. They showed that the kings had full command over the resources, techniques and skills
.

The rulers of Vijayanagara also got built mandapas or pavilions. Besides there were long and pillared corridors that ran around the shrines. There were two main temples—The Virupaksha Temple and the Vitthala Temple. The Virupaksha Temple was built over the centuries. It was constructed in the 9th-10th centuries. But after the establishment of Vijayanagara Empire, it was substantially enlarged. Krishnadeva Raya built a hall in front of the main shrine. It marked his accession to the throne. It was decorated with delicately carved pillars.

Many temple complexes had chariot streets. These streets extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line. They were paved with slabs of stone. They were lined with pillared pavilions. The merchants set up their shops in these pavilions. In other words, the rulers of Vijayanagara built impressive buildings.

Ordinary people of this empire spoke different languages and followed different religious traditions.

There were some small traders and local merchants use to live in cities, trade centres, port towns and villages. Local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants participated in exchanges.

Pensants, workers, slaves etc. were including in ordinary people. There were ordinary Brahmanas, traders and women also. Different odd works and jobs were taken by ordinary people as a labourer.

The workers were called ‘Vipravinodin’. This class consisted of ironsmiths, goldsmiths, carpenters, sculpture-makers etc. who often quarrelled mutually for their rights. The Vellore inscription of 1555 tells that there was a quarrel between the peasants and the artists. It seems that during that period, need was felt to frame laws for the society to execute social justice.

Kaikkol or the weavers were in large numbers. They lived near temples. They played significant role in running the administration of the temples. In Vijayanagara state there were Gadarias known as Kambalattar. They followed the customs of polyandry. The special characteristic was that the wife was elder to the husband. Their women had physical relations with the husband’s kinsmen like father, brothers etc. The customs of divorce, sati and remarriages were prevalent.

There was an orthodox bigot section in Vijayanagara called as Reddis. They were the owners of the land. In the Telegu region of Vijayanagara, they had enough influence. In the society there were a few low class people, who were non-influential. They were Dombar, Marva, Jogi, Paraiyan, Boi, Kallar etc. Some low caste people were converted to Christianity due to the influence of the Portuguese. The evils of caste system and untouchability were practised in the society. Many poets protested against these evils.

The ordinary people of the Vijayanagara Empire lived in ordinary houses. This is how the sixteenth-century Portuguese traveller Barbosa described the houses of ordinary people, which have not survived : “The other houses of the people are thatched, but nonetheless well built and arranged according to occupations, in long strees with many open places.”

The system of slavery existed in the society. The men were sold and purchased. It was called Besabaga. There were some special rules for the slaves. The masters of the slaves treated them with kindness.

Hints:

Fill the following with their names on correct place or location given within outline map of world:

(i) Italy, (ii) Portugal, (iii) Iran, (iv) Russia.

Travellers routes to be taken to reach Vijayanagara from Italy and Portugal:

The travellers would have crossed respectively Red Sea, Araban Sea and then, they should have taken land route to South India to reach Vijayanagara (Karnataka).

The travellers from Portugal should have cross Atlantic Ocean touching the Cape of Good Hope (extrme comer of South Africa) and then they should take Indian Ocean to reach Malabar from their to Vijayanagara taking land route.

From Iran they should taken Arab Sea and then Indian Ocean from Malabar coast to Vijayanagara.

From Iran via Afghanistan and modern Pakistan they would have taken land route upto Karnataka, India.

From Russia via Afghanistan they would have come to India crossing modem Punjab in Pakistan, central India crossing Vindhyachal, Satpura to Karnataka.

From Russia they could have sea route also either through China Sea to Bay of Bengal and then to Vijayanagara or from western coast of India taking Caspian Sea, Arabian Sea through Indian Ocean to south India.

One of the major cities which flourished in the subcontinent during the Christian era from the period of fourteen to seventeenth century. We can refer here Hampi or Vijayanagara, capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire as an excellent example.

(a) According to the instruction of the project the architecture of the city and its features as well as political activities (as a centre or capital of the empire) are summarise in the following manner :

Introduction : A large number of inscriptions of the kings of Vijayanagara and their nayakas recording donations to temples as well as describing important events have been recovered. Several travellers visited the city and wrote about it. Notable among their accounts are those of an Italian trader named Nicolo de Conti, an ambassador named Abdur Razzaq sent by the ruler of Persia, a merchant named Afanasii Nikitin from Russia, all of whom visited the city in the fifteenth century and those of Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz from Portugal, who came in the sixteenth century.

The Capital and its environs : Like most capitals, Vijayanagara was characterised by a distinctive physical layout and building style.

Vijayanagara (Hampi) was a sprawling city : This is an excerpt irom Domingo Paes’s description of Vijayanagara :

“The size of this city I do not write here, because it cannot all be seen from any one spot, but I climbed a hill whence I could see a great part of it.

I could not see it all because it lies between several ranges of hills. What I saw from thence seemed to me as large as Rome, and very beautiful to the sight. There are many groves of trees within it, in the gardens of the houses, and many conduits of water which flow into the midst of it, and in palace there are lakes, and the king has close to his palace a palm-grove and other rich fruit-bearing trees.”

Good water supply provision : Natural basin formed by river, Tungabhadra which flows in north easterly direction was used as a reliable water resource by the people of Hampi or Vijayanagara. The state and people have consturcted tanks and canals for water supply.

Fortification of the city : We find the remains of the great fortress walls of Hampi. This historical fact has been verified by travellers also. For instance Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in the fifteenth century, was greatly impressed by the fortification and mentioned seven lines of forts. These encircle not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests. The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city. The massive masonry construction was slightly tapered.

Roads : Archaeologists have studied roads within the city and those leading out from it. These have been identified by tracing paths through gateways, as well as by finds of pavements. Roads generally wound around through the valleys, avoiding rocky terrain. Some of the most important roads extended from temple gateways, and were lined by bazaars.

The urban core of Hampi: Moving along the roads leading into the urban core, there is relatively little archaeological evidence of the houses of ordinary people. Archaeologists have found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, including in the north-eastern corner of the urban core and suggest that these areas may have been occupied by rich traders.

Prominent Buildings :

(a) Lotus Mahal : One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre is the Lotus Mahal, so named by British travellers in the nineteenth century. While the name is certainly romantic, historians are not quite sure what the building was used for. One suggestion found in a map drawn by Mackenzie, is that it may have been a council chamber, a place where the king met his advisers.

Fie. : Lotus Mahal

(b) Hazara Rama Temple : Hazara Rama Temple was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family. The images in the central shrine are missing however, sculpted panels on the walls survive. These include scenes from the Ramayana sculpted on the inner walls of the shrine.

I am living in Tamil Nadu. There is a Hindu religious temple in our neighbourhood. I have notice seven characteristics of this temple.

Fig. : A Gopuram

In terms of temple architecture, certain new features are evidence. These included structures of immense scale that must have been a mark of imperial authority, best exemplified by the gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. They were also probably meant as reminders of the power of kings, able to command the resources, techniques and skills needed to construct these towering gateways.

The Virupakhsa Temple was built over centuries. While inscriptions suggest that the earliest shrine dated to the ninth-tenth centuries it was substantially enlarged with the eastiblishment of the Vijayanagara Empire.

The hall in front of the main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession. This was decorated with delicately carved pillars. He is also credited with the construction of the eastern gopuram. These additions meant that the central shrine came to occupy a relatively small part of the complex. The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes. Some were spaces in which the images of gods were placed to witness special programmes of music, dance, drama, etc. Others were used to celebrate the marriages of deities, and yet others were meant for the deities to swing in. Special images, distinct from those kept in the small central shrine, were used on these occasions.

Fig. An aerial view of the Virupaksha Temple

Comparison with Virupaksha Temple:

When we compare religious building we visited in our neighbourhood with Virupaksha Temple it is total different. The reason may be time period of the constructions.

Lotus Mahal of Hampi : One of the most beautiful buildings in the Royal Centre is the Lotus Mahal, so named by British travellers in the nineteenth century. While the name is certainly romantic, historians are not quite sure what the building was used for. One suggestion hound in a map drawn by Mackenzie, is that it may have been a council chamber, a place where the king met his advisers. While most temples were located in the sacred centre, there were several in the Royal Centre as well.

Number of rulers of Vijayanagara were lovers of constructed many temples, and other buildings also.

(i) The temple of Vitthalswami is also a high contribution. Fergusson calls it as the last of the highly developed style of architecture.

(ii) The temple of Vitthalswami was started during the reign of Deva Raya II and could not be completed even till the time of Achutraya. It has two gateways and 56 pillars.

(iii) In fact the rulers of Vijayanagara empire got several temples constructed. Their ruling period is not important only from the point of view of the numbers of the temple constructed but also from the point of their structure and organisation.

(iv) The main architectural feature of the temples of this period is that besides many pillars very large halls were also constructed.

The ceremonies performed on the occasion included worship of the image, worship of state horse and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings marked the occassion.

(i) The amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area.

(ii) The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.

(a) The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction. In almost all cases embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes.

(b) One of the most prominent waterworks to be seen among the ruins is the Hiriya canal. This canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core”. This was apparently built by kings of the Sangama dynasty.

Two features of the Hazara Rama Temple:
1. While most temples were located in the sacred centre, there were several in the royal centre as well. One of the most spectacular of these is known as the Hazara Rama Temple. This was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family.

2. The images in the central shrine are missing, however, sculpted panels on the walls survive. They give us proof of development of temple architecture in the Vijayanagara Empire.

(a) According to local tradition, these halls sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana. Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the local mother goddess did penance in these halls in order to marry Virupaksha, the guardian diety of the kingdom, also recognised as a form of Shiva.

(b)    Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such as the Pallavas, Ghalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Rulers very often encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with the divine -often, the deity was explicity or implicity identified with the king. Temples also functioned as centres of learning.

(c)    It is likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. In fact the Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.

The two reasons for having control on the northern frontiers of Vijayanagara by the Sultans of Deccan and the Gajpati rulers of Orissa were:

(i)    for control of the fertile river valleys.

(ii)    the resources generated by lucrative overseas trade.

1. The ruler of Vijayanagara was an ambitious and kept in a constant military preparation. Naturally several development works were neglected and Vijayanagara could not develop friendly relations with the Orissa and Deccan Sultanates.

2. The battle of Talikota was another major reason for decline of empire in which Vijayanagara Emperor’s forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Alimadnagar and Golconda. The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city was totally abandoned within a few years.

Two brothers namely Harihara and Bukka laid the foundation of Vijayanagara Empire in 1336. It stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula.

(i) Sangama dynasty (ii) Saluva dynasty (iii) Taluva dynasty (iv) Aravidu dynasty.

The most famous ruler of Vijayanagara was Krishnadeva Raya. He belonged to the Taluva dynasty. He was a contemporary of Babur.

Krishnadeva Raya ruled from 1509 to 1529 A.D. He had controlled both Gulbarga and Bidar.

The battle of Talikota was fought in 1565 AD between the organisation of Sultans of Deccan and ruler of Vijayanagara Sadashiva Raya. The Kingdom of Vijayanagara was defeated in this battle.

Temples associated with Vijayanagara Kingdom could be seen in the Vijayanagara city, Kanchipuram, Vellore and Srirangapattam.

Hampi was another name for Vijayanagara. This name was derived from the local mother goddess named Pampadevi. The ruins of Hampi were discovered in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian. In fact, Colin Mackenzie was an employee of the East India Company of England.

Colin Mackenzie was an engineer and antiquarian. He was an employee of the East India Company. He prepared the first survey of the Hampi. His initial information about this city was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.

(i) The temples had large establishments. They had gopurams and royal gateways.

(ii) The temples also had mandapas or pavilions, besides long and pillared corridors. These corridors often ran around the shrines.

(i) The kigns of Vijayanagara claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha.

(ii) All royal orders were signed as “Shri Virupaksha.” The signatures were usually in the Kannada script.

(i) Krishnadeva Raya got built the hall in front of the main shrine. It was built to mark his accession to the throne.

(ii) Krishnadeva Raya was also credited with the construction of the eastern gopuram.

The ourtermost wall of Vijayanagara linked the hills surrounding the city. It had the massive masonry construction without any use of mortar or cementing agent. The stone blocks were wedge-shaped. So they fitted well in their place. Similarly the inner portion of the walls as earth packed with rubble.

(i) The capital city of Vijayanagara empire was Hampi. It was said to be the best prominent city in the world.

As most of the rulers of the Vijayanagara empire took keen interest in welfare of the farmers as well as in agricultural progress they constructed dams to store water and built water canals and tanks.

(ii) The state of Vijayanagara was famous for fine buildings, fortresses, temples, palaces and works of irrigation. Ruins of Hampi show the grandeur cities.

Strain began to show within the imperial structure following Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529 as his successiors were troubled by rebellious nayakas or military chiefs. By 1542 control at the centre had shifted to another ruling lineage, that of the Aravidu, which remained in power till the end of the seventeenth century During this period, as indeed earlier, the military ambitions of the rulers of Vijayanagara as well as there of the Deccan Sultanates resulted in shifting alignments.
Eventually this led to an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara. In 1565 Rama Raya the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battle at Rakshasi Tangadi (also known as Talikota), where his forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city was totally abandoned within a few years. Now the focus of the empire shifted to the east where the Aravidu dynasty ruled from Penukonda and later from Chandragiri (near Tirupati).

1. Vijayanagara laid in several hill ranges. Town like-Hampi, capital city of Vijayanagara and large number of other big and small towns grew up mainly in the coastal area of Vijayanagara empire. It is said that architectural artisans were organised into guilds control by the merchants of the kingdom.

2. The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction.

In almost all cases embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes, as this is one of the most arid zones of the peninsula.

3. One of the most prominent water works to be seen among the ruins is the Hiriya canal. This canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core”. This was apparently built by kings of the Sangama dynasty.

The successors of Krishnadeva Raya was troubled by the rebellious nayakas and miliary chiefs after his death in 1529. By 1524 control at the centre had shifted to another ruling lineage, that of the Aravidu, which remained in power till the end of the seventeenth century. During this period, as indeed earlier, the military ambitions of the rulers of Vijayanagara as well as those of the Deccan Sultanates resulted in shifting alignments. Eventually this led to an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara. In 1565 Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi (also known as Talikota), where his forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda.

Buildings that survive tell us about the way spaces were organised and used, how they were built, with what materials and techniques. For example, we can assess the defence requirements and military preparedness of a city by studying its fortifications. Buildings also tell us about the spread of ideas and cultural influences if we compare them with buildings in other places. They convey ideas which the builders or their patrons wished to project. They are often stuff used with symbols which are a product of their cultural context. These we can understand when we combine information from other sources like literature, inscriptions and popular traditions.

After the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529, the royal structure withnessed tensions. The royal inheritors had to face opposition from rebellious heroes and commanders. As a result, the control of Aravidu Dynasty was established over Vijayanagara by 1524. It held its control over the royal authority till the 17th century. Even during this period, the relations between the rulers of Vijayanagara and the Sultans of the Deccan remained strained because they nurtured ambitions which vacillated balance between the two time and again. At last a friendship was established between the rulers of Vijayanagara and the Sultans of the Deccan.

In 1565, the army of Vijayanagara, under the leadership of chief minister Ram Raya fought at Rakshashi-Tangari which is also known as Talikota. Here it was defeated by the armies of the Sultans of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golkunda. The victorius soldiers attacked Vijayanagara and looted it abundantly. The city was completely destroyed in a few years. Now the centre of empire moved towards the east. Here Aravidu Dynasty ruled from Penunkonda and after it Chandragiri near Tirupati.

To get information about the Vijayanagara, initial efforts were made by Mackenzie. Thereafter stone-edicts and travel descriptions were added to it. This place came under the control of Archaeological Survey of India and Karnataka Antique Museum in the 20th century. In 1976, Hampi was accepted as a place of national importance. Thereafter on the basis of the information and edicts available, a detailed programme was chalked out to explore the remnants of Vijayanagara. For about 20 years, a dozen scholars of the world gathered every information and conserved it. The preparation of an outline map of the area is the part of this project. In the first phase, all the area was divided into 25 square parts. Every part was given a letter from an alphabet to name it. Then they were further divided into different sub-parts. The small part was further divided into a single unit.

All these surveys were made after a thorough scrutiny and a lot of hard work. It led to the study of thousands of structures of small devotional places, residence and big temples. The details about them were also penned down. With these works, the roads, paths and bazaars of Vijayanagara can be enlivened. Their position has been determined on the basis of pillars and porches.

(i) Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century. In its heyday it stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula.

(ii)    In 1565 the city was sacked and subsequently deserted. Although it fell into ruin in the seventeenth-eighteenth centuries, it lived on in the memories of people living in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab.

(iii)    They remembered it as Hampi, a name derived from that of the local mother goddess, Pampadevi. These oral traditions combined with archaeological finds, monuments and inscriptions and other records helped scholars to rediscover the Vijayanagara Empire.

(iv)    The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie. An employee of the English East India Company, he prepared the first survey map of the site.

(v)    According to tradition and epigraphic evidence two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336. This empire included within its frontier peoples who spoke different languages and followed different religious traditions.

More generally, he described the city as being “the best provided city in the world” with the market stacked with provisions such as rice, wheat, grains, Indian corn and a certain amount of barley and beans, moong, pulses and horse-gram” all of which were cheaply and abundantly available. According to Fernao Nuniz, the Vijayanagara markets were “overflowing with abundance of fruits, grapes and oranges, limes, pomegranates, jackfruit and mangoes and all very cheap”. Meat too was sold in abundance in the marketplaces.

Nuniz describes “mutton, pork, vension, partridges, hares, doves, quail and all kinds of birds, sparrows, rats and cats and lizards” as being sold in the market of Bisnaga (Vijayanagara).

The interpretation given by different historians/scholars about the buildings of Vijayanagara Empire is as follow:

(i) The Italian traveller Nicolo Conti travelled through Vijayanagara in 1426. He writes about Hampi that the circumference of the city sixty miles, its walls extended to the hills and cover the valley below.

(ii) Persian traveller Abdur Razzaq, came to India in 1443 (during the time of Deva Ray II) gives very impressive description of city of Vijayanagara. He wrote that Vijayanagara was an unprecedented city, the life of which was neither ever heard or seen in the whole word. This city is built in such a way that its seven guarding fort gates are built within each other. In the city there is a separate market place of every occupation. The royal palace is very vast.

(iii)    Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller had described Vijayanagara was most prosperous city having vast granaries of rice, wheat etc. The markets and even road side of the city were full of innumerable things.

(iv)    Barbosa and another Portuguese travellers and writers came to India in 1516. He described Vijayanagara as a densely populated city. According to him city was a great centre of foreign trade.

(a) Vijayanagara was founded by the Sangama dynasty which remained in power till 1485. They were deposed by the Saluvas who ruled till 1503.

(b)    The next dynasty ruled was the Tuluva dynasty whose most famous king was Krishnadeva Ray. During his reign, the empire reached the peak of its prosperity.

(c)    After Krishnadeva Ray’s death, the empire began to collapse. Rebellious military chiefs harassed his successors.

(d)    By 1542, power slipped into the hands of the Aravidu dynasty which ruled till the 17th century.

(e)    In 1565, the Battle of Talikota took place. Rama Ray, the chief minister alienated the rulers of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. These three rulers formed an alliance, decisively defeated the Vijayanagara army and sacked the city. The power centre of the empire now shifted eastwards under the Aravidu dynasty.

Characteristic features of temple complexes in the Vijayanagara empire:

(a)    According to local tradition, temple halls sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana. Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the local mother goddess did penance in these halls in order to marry Virupaksha, the guardian diety of the kingdom, also recognised as a form of Shiva.

(b)    Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Rulers very often encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with the divine — often, the deity was explicity or implicity identified with the king. Temples also functioned as centres of learning.

(c)    It is likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. In fact the Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.

(d)    In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features were in evidence. These included structures of immense scale that must have been a mark of imperial authority, best exemplified by the raya gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. They were also probably meant as reminders of the power of kings, able to command the resources, techniques and skills needed to construct these towering gateways. Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex.

(e)    The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes. Some were spaces in which the images of gods were placed to witness special programmes of music, dance, drama, etc. Others were used to celebrate the marriages of deities, and yet others were meant for the deities to swing in.

“Krishnadeva Raya’s rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.” Justify the statements on the basis of evidences.
Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty of the Vijayanagara empire. He ruled from 1509 to 1529. He was the most famous ruler of Vijayanagara empire. He was a good writer. He composed a work on statecraft in Telgu known as the Amuktamalyada. About traders he wrote :

“A king should improve the harbours of his country and so encourage its commerce that horses, elephants, precious gems, sandalwood, pearls and other articles are freely imported... He should arrange that the foreign sailors who land in his country on account of storms, illness and exhaustion are looked after in a suitable manner... Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses be attached to yourself by providing them with daily audience, presents and allowing decent profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies.”

His rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation. This was the time when the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab) was acquired (1512), the rulers of Orissa were subdued (1514) and severe defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur (1520).

His other works—Although the kingdom remained in a constant state of military preparedness it flourished under conditions of unparalleled peace and prosperity. Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and adding impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples. He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram after his mother.

(a) Fortification : (i) The different parts of the city of Vijayanagara were enclosed with the great fortress walls. There were seven lines of forts. These encircled not only the city of Vijayanagara but also its agricultural land and forests. The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city. This wall was built with wedge shaped blocks of stone. They fixed well into each other and had no use of mortar or cementing agent. The inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble.

(ii) This fortification enclosed agricultural tracts like cultivated fields, gardens and forests. The modern archaeologists have found an evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre and the urban core. To irrigate this tract, there was an elaborate canal system which drew water from the Tungabhadra. The agricultural tracts were incorporated within the fortified area with a purpose. In the medieval periods, sieges were laid to starve the defenders into submission. These sieges could last even for months and years. So the rulers built large granaries within fortified areas. So the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted an elaborate strategy to protect their agricultural belt.

(iii) However a second line of fortification surrounded the inner core of the urban complex. A third line of fortification went round the royal centre. There were well guarded gates to enter the fort. These gates led to the major roads. They had distinctive architectural features. There was an arch on the gateway and a dome over the gate.

(b) Roads : The roads linked different parts of the city of Vijayanagara. They also led out of the city. They went through the whole valley. They avoided rocky terrain. Many important roads started from temple gateways. They were lined by bazaars.

(a) The site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. The northern end of the city touched the banks of the Tungabhadra. It was a rocky and hilly area. According to a local tradition, the kingdoms of Bali and Sugriva, mentioned in the Ramayana, existed in these hills. There is another tradition that Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, did penance in these hills in order to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom. The marriage was annually celebrated in the Virupaksha temple. Besides there were Jaina temples in the pre-Vij ayanagara period. In other words, this area was associated with many sacred traditions. Hence it is called the Sacred Centre.

(b) The very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by these sacred traditions and temples. The kings of Vijayanagara claimed to rule on behalf of the god, Virupaksha. They signed all royal orders as “Shri Virupaksha.” They often signed in the Kannad script. However the rulers ofVijayanagara not only developed but also innovated the earlier traditions. They displayed royal portrait sculpture in the temples. The visit of the kings to temples was treated as an important occasion. So he was accompanied by all the important nayakas.

I. Meaning of Nayakas : In Vijayanagara Empire among those who exercised power in the empire were military chiefs who usually controlled forts and had armed supporters. These chiefs often moved from one area to another, and in many cases were accompanied by peasants looking for fertile land on which to settle. These chiefs were known as nayakas and they usually spoke Telugu or Kannada. Many nayakas submitted to the authority'of the kings of Vijayanagara but they often rebelled and had to be subdued by military action.

Meaning of Amara : Amara believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word Samara, meaning battle or war. It also resembles the Persian term amir, meaning a high noble.

II. Description of role of Nayakas and Amara-Nayakas in Vijayanagara Empire:

(a) Nayakas were military chiefs usually mentioned law and order in their areas of control. They maintained forests and kept armed supporters. They use to control and expand fertile land and agricultural settlements. They usually submitted to kings (to the authority of Vijayanagara). They were not well disciplined. They generally rebelled whenever they use to find suitable occasion. The king used to take military actions against them to bring again them under their control.

(b) The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is likely that many features of this system were derived from the Iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate. The amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area. They retained a part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force with which they brought the entire southern peninsula under their control. Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.    

(c) The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the kings annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty. Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring them from one place to another.         

The social and economic conditions of Vijayanagara were as follows:
Social Condition:

(i)    Respect for Brahmans : The Brahmanas were greatly respected in the state of Vijayanagara. They attained a supreme position in the state. Even when they committed a crime, they were not given the punishment of death. They led a pious life. They were vegetarian. They never touched meat and wine. They were an ideal and role model for others.

(ii)    Place of Women : The women were given a lot of respect in Vijayanagara. They could get even higher education. They had no purdah system. They were also educated in warfare and fine arts.

(iii)    Several malpractices were existed : The society of Vijayanagara had many malpractices. The animals were sacrificed to please gods and goddesses. The practice of sati was very popular in the society. Even the Telugu women were buried alive after the deaths of their husbands. Besides there was an evil of prostitution. Deva Raya II had twelve thousand queens. He had married three thousand queens on the condition that they would perform sati after his death.

Economic Condition : The economic condition of Vijayanagara was prosperous. Its land was fertile. So there was enough trading activity. The rulers of Vijayanagara had good relations with the Portuguese. There was a trading of Arabian horses. The sea-coasts of Vijayanagara had many ports. Calicut was a famous sea-port during those days. It was used to trade with Burma, China,. Iran, Arabia, Portugal and South Africa. It was used to export cloth, rice, sugar, iron and spices. It imported horses, elephants, copper, silk and diamond jewellery. The merchants had established their trade centres. There was a currency of gold and silver. It facilitated exchange of goods. Besides the trade, there was a great progress in industry and agriculture. The main occupation of the people was weaving cloth, mining of minerals and to prepare metal goods.

Vijayanagara was founded in 1336 AD. Its founders were two brothers called Harihara and Bukka Raya. They founded a city called Vijayanagara on the banks of river Tungabhadra. Gradually this city was transformed into a large Hindu Kingdom.
Rulers:Some of the famous rulers of Vijayanagara kingdom are given below:

(i)    HariharaI : Harihara I himself founded the Vijayanagara with the help of his brother Bukka Raya. He belonged to Sangama dynasty. He expanded the frontiers of his kingdom from Krishna river till Kaveri river and from Eastern Ghats till Wester^ Ghats.

(ii)    Bukka Raya I : After Harihara I, Bukka Raya became the next king. He also belonged to Sangama dynasty. He beautified the city of Vijayanagara. He also fought wars with Bahmani rulers.

(iii) Harihara II and Devaraya II : These two were last famous rulers of Sangama dynasty. Devaraya appointed Muslims in his army. He greatly increased the prestige of Vijayanagara.

(iv)Krishnadeva Raya : Krishnadeva Raya was the most famous ruler of Taluva dynasty. He ruled from 1509 till 1530 AD. First of all he suppressed the revoltee Nayakas. Then he conquered the region of Raichur Doab. Under his reign, prestige of Vijayanagara spread every where.

(v) Sadashiv Raya : He was the last ruler of Taluva dynasty. During his reign, rulers of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar made an alliance and attacked Vijayanagara. Army of Vijayanagara was defeated in 1565 AD in the battle of Talikota. The victorious army sacked the city of Vijayanagara and conquered its area. In this way Vijayanagara kingdom completely came to an end.

(i) The tank was constructed at the mouth of two hills. It was constructed that place so that all the water coming from either one side or the other use to collect three (at mouth of both hills).

(ii)    The sources of water for the tanks were the following :

(a)    Firstly, the all water was checked which use to come from either one side or the other side use to collect at the mouth of the hills.

(b)    Secondly, water come to tank from more than three leagues (near about 15 kilometres-from the tank points)- By pipes which ran along the lower parts of-the range outside. This water was brought from a lake which itself overflow into a little river.

(iii)    The advantages of constructing tanks :

(a)    This water was used by the people for the different day to day purposes.

(b)    The people and the state Government had to irrigate their garden and rice-fields. The tanks water could be use for irrigation purpose.

(c)    Whenever tanks were constructed people in thousands used to get employment.

(d)    Tanks were very helpful to check flood and they could be used for harvesting rain water. During drought tank water was blessing for each and every people, agriculture and industry also.

(i) A king should improve the harbours of his kingdom to attract foreign traders in larger number, to enhance trade and to increase state income.

(ii)    Such situation encourage commerce and import of horses, elephants, precious gems and export of sandlewood and pearls.

(iii)    Good attitude of a ruler or state attracts foreign traders, visitors and tourists. The impression of ruler, state and people of an empire is praised by foreigners. It brings good name and fame for state or country.

(i) Colin Mackenzie became famous because he was a great man, playing different roles as an engineer, surveyor and cartographer. In 1815 he was appointed the first Surveyor General of India, a post he held till his death in 1821.

(ii) Colin Mackenzie embarked on collecting local histories and surveying historic sites in order to better understand India’s past and make governance of colony easier. He believed that by studying Vijayanagra the British East India Company could gain much useful information on many of institutions, laws and customs whose influence still prevailed among the various tribes of natives forming the general mass of the population of that day.

(iii) Mackenzie collected more information about Hampi through embarking on collecting local histories, interacting and hold conversation with elderly people, priests, having some old and written books or record papers and survey historic sites in order to better understand India’s past.

(iv) The facts and knowledge collected by Colin Mackenzie and his colleagues about Hampi the scholars of that time and of later time studies and collected more local historical information about the remains of ancient buildings, temples and surveyed historical sites, brought in light by the Department of Surveyor General of India.

(i) Domingo Paes, a famous traveller of Portugal gives a vivid description of the bazaars of the Vijayanagara city. There was a broad and beautiful street. In that street lived many merchants. In the bazaar the visitors would find, all types of rubies, diamonds, emeralds, pearls, seed-pearls, cloths and every other type of articles there was on earth and that visitors might wish to buy.

The visitors could see in Vijayanagara’s bazaar every evening a fair. There sold many common horses, nags, citrons, limes, oranges, grapes, different types of gardens stuff and wood, etc.

(ii) According to me a city can be graded the best city where provisions such as rice, wheat, grains, Indian corn, are easily available. There should be an abundance of fruits and they all should be cheap as well. There should be a proper care of the cleanliness of the city. Some areas of city can set an example of a best cities.

(iii) Domingo Paes had given a vivid description of the city of Vijayanagara. He described the city as being the best provides city in the world.

(a)    There are many markets, which were stacked with provisions such as rice, wheat, grains, com, barley, beans, moong, pulses and horse-grain. All essential things were available in abundant quantity in the city of Vijayanagara.

Prices of the things were Very low.

(b)    According to Fernao Nuniz, the Vijayanagara markets were overflowing with abundance of grapes, oranges, limes, jackfruits, pomegranates and mangoes. All types of fruits and vegetables are very cheap.

Kolar, 2. Kanchipuram, 3. Mysore, 4. Bidar, 5. Amber.

1. Golconda, 2. Bijapur, 3. Vijayanagara, 4. Chandragiri (Tirupati), 5. Tanjavur.

The reasons for developing water resources of Vijayanagara were:

(i)The natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra which flows in a north –easterly direction hills surrounds this and a number of streams flow down to the river from these hills.

(ii)Embankments were built along the streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes.

(iii)As Vijayanagara was in one of the most arid zones of the peninsula , elaborate water arrangements had to be made to store rain water and conduct it to the city.

(iv)Kamalapuram tank not only irrigated fields nearby but water was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre”. 

The justifications:

 (i) The entire complex is surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them.

 (ii) The audience hall is a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close and regular intervals.

 (iii) It had stair case going up to to the second floor, which rested on pillars.

 (iv) It was located on one of the highest points in the city.

 (v) The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings.

Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.

He conquered Krishna river valley (the Raichur doab).

(a) Abul Fazl was one of the courtiers of Emperor Akbar.

(b) The sources he used to compile his work:

(i) Collected records and narratives of king's action.

(ii) Interrogated the royal family members and servants.

(iii) Studied Royal commands.

(iv) Gathered the details of many events.

(c) Two administrative and literary projects compiled by him at the order of Emperor Akbar:

(i) Ain–i-Akbari

(ii) Akbarnamah 
                                                                   OR

(a) The most famous ruler of Vijayanagara was Krishnadeva Raya because:

(i) He followed an expansionist policy.

(ii) He consolidated his empire.

(iii) He organized a large army and built some fine temples.

(b) The name was Amuktamalyada and the theme was state craft.

(c) The king was interested in encouraging trade as:

(i) To encourage import of elephants, gems, pearls etc.

(ii) Trade was a status symbol.

(iii) Revenue from trade contributed to the prosperity of the state.

The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie.

(i) An employee of the English East India Company, he prepared the first survey map of the site.

(ii) Much of the initial information he received was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.

(iii) Subsequently, from 1856, photographers began to record the monuments which enabled scholars to study them.

(iv) As early as 1836 epigraphists began collecting several dozen inscriptions found at this and other temples at Hampi.

(v) In an effort to reconstruct the history of the city and the empire, historians collated information from these sources with accounts of foreign travellers and other literature written in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit.

Location and Water Requirements-

(i) Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction.

(ii) The surrounding landscape is characterised by the stunning hills of granite forming a girdle around the city.

(iii) Streams flowed down to the river from the rocky outcrops.

(iv) Embankment were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying Sizes.

(v) Kamlapuram tank was source of water for irrigation as well as the needs of the royal centre.

(vi) The most prominent water works included the Hiriya Canal that drew water from the canal and supplied it for irrigation.

Fortifications:

(i) Abdur Razzaq was impressed by the fortifications of Vijayanagara.

(ii) He mentioned seven lines of forts.

(iii) These encircled not only the city but also the agricultural lands and forests.

(iv) The walls linked the hills surrounding the city.

(v) Stone blocks were used in construction.

(vi) Significance of the fortifications that it enclosed the agricultural tracts.

(vii) Second line of fortification went around the inner core of the urban complex.

(viii) A third line of fortification surrounded the royal centre within which each set of major building was surrounded by its own high walls.

(ix) There were well guarded gates.

OR

Agriculture was organised around two major seasonal cycles:

(i) Agriculture was organized around two major seasonal cycles, the Kharif (autumn) and the Rabi (spring). 187

(ii) This would mean that most regions, except those terrains that were the most arid or inhospitable, produced a minimum of two crops a year (do-fasla),

(iii) Whereas some, where rainfall or irrigation assured a continuous supply of water, even gave three crops.

(iv) This ensured an enormous variety of produce. For instance, we are told in the Ain that the Mughal provinces of Agra produced 39 varieties of crops and Delhi produced 43 over the two seasons. Bengal produced 50 varieties of rice alone.

(v) Crops such as cotton and sugarcane were jins-i kamil par excellence. Cotton was grown over a great swathe of territory spread over central India and the Deccan plateau, whereas Bengal was famous for its sugar.

(vi) Such cash crops would also include various sorts of oilseeds (for example, mustard) and lentils.

(vii) This shows how subsistence and commercial production were closely intertwined in an average peasant’s holding.

(viii) During the seventeenth century several new crops from different parts of the world reached the Indian subcontinent.

(ix) Maize (makka) , for example, was introduced into India via Africa and Spain and by the seventeenth century it was being listed as one of the major crops of western India.

(x) Vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and chillies were introduced from the New World at this time, as were fruits like the pineapple and the papaya.

Krishnadeva Raya’s rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation:

(i) This was the time when the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab) was acquired (1512).

(ii) The rulers of Orissa were subdued (1514) and severe defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur (1520).

(iii) Although the kingdom remained in a constant state of military preparedness, it flourished under conditions of unparalleled peace and prosperity.

(iv) Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and adding impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples.

iv) He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram after his mother. Some of the most detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara come from his time or just after.

Barbosa has described that the houses of ordinary people are thatched:

i. Houses are well built and strong

ii. Houses were arranged according to occupations in long streets with many open places

iii. Entire area had many shrines and small temples which indicates the prevalence of variety of cults

iv. Rainwater tanks and temple tanks served as sources of water for the people.

The royal Centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement.

(i) It included over 60 temples. About thirty building complexes have been identified as palaces.

(ii) The “King’s palace” was the largest of the enclosures but has not yielded definitive evidence of being a royal residence.

(iii) It had two of the most impressive platforms, usually called the “audience hall” and the “mahanavami dibba” which is located on one of the highest points in the city.

(iv) One of the most beautiful building in the royal centre was the Lotus Mahal and the most spectacular was known as the Hazara Rama temple as this was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family.

Krishnadeva Raya’s rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.

(i) This was the time when the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers was acquired, the rulers of Orissa were subdued and severe defeats were inflicted on the sultan of Bijapur.

(ii) Although the kingdom remained in a constant state of military preparedness, it flourished under conditions of unparalleled peace and prosperity.

(iii) Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and adding impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples.

(iv) He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram after his mother.

The causes of the decline of Vijayanagara were:

(i)His successors were troubled by rebellious nayakas or military chiefs.

(ii) In 1565, Rama Raya, the chief ministers of Vijayanagara, led the army in to battle at Rakshai-Tangadi, where his forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadanagar and Golconda.

(iii) The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city was totally abandoned within a few years.

(iv) It was the adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off Sultan against another that led the Sultans to combine together and decisively defeat him.

i.The name comes from the shape of the platform and the Mahanavami festival which was observed there.

ii. Rituals Associated with the structure – Dussehra, Durga Puja and Navaratri or Mahanavami

iii. The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty.

iv. The ceremonies performed on the occasion included worship of image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.

v. Dances, wrestling match, and procession of horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers.

vi. Ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings marked the occasion.

vii. The ruler inspected the army.

viii. Nayakas brought gifts and tribute for the kingIt had two of the most impressive platforms, the “Audience Hall” and the “Mahanavami Dibba”.

ix. The entire complex was surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them.

x. The audience hall was a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close and regular intervals.

xi. It had a staircase going up to the second floor.

xii. The pillars were closely spaced.

xiii. The “Mahanavami Dibba” was a massive platform rising form a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to height of 40 ft.

xiv. The platform must have supported a wooden structure and other perishable material during festivals.

xv. The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings.

The Virupaksha temple:

i. The Virupaksha temple was an old temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, the guardian deity.

ii. It was enlarged with the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire.

iii. The hall in front of the main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession.

iv. This was decorated with delicately carved pillars.

v. Gopurams, royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signaled the presence of the temple.

vi. Central shrine (Garbha griha).

vii. There were Mandapas or pillared corridors found in the temple.

viii. Social importance –

- Images of God were placed to witness special programmes of music, dance and dramas.

- Used to celebrate the marriages of deities.

- Others were meant to swing the deities.

ix. Vijayanagara rulers/ kings ruled on behalf of Lord Virupaksha.

x. Orders were signed in the name of Sri Virupaksha.

xi. Rulers indicated close links with God using title “Hindu Suratrana”.

xii. Royal portraits sculpture was also displayed in temples.

xiii. Kings visits to temples along with Amaranayakas were important occasion.

The Vitthala temple:
(i) The principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu.
(ii) This temple has several halls and a unique shrine designed as a Chariot.
(iii) A characteristic feature of the temple complexes is the Chariot Streets that extended from the temple Gopuram in a straight line.
(iv) These streets were paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions in which merchants set up their shops.
(ANY FIVE FROM  Virupaksha temple AND ANY THREE FROM Vitthala temple)