Understanding Society Chapter 1 Social Structure : Stratification And Social Process In Society

(2) Socialization : This is a process by which a human infant learns the norms, rules and skills of the society.

(3) Social Structure : This refers to the ways (means) and different parts of structure which are organised and follow stable patterns of collective rules, roles and activities.

(4) Social System : This a set of patterned relations among structural elements of a society.

(5) Role : It is the expected behaviour of a person (or an individual) who holds a certain status.

(6) Role-Strain : Personal problems that result when inconsistencies are built into a role.

(7) Role-Conflict : The situations when fulfilment of one role may result in the violation of another.

(8) Role-Set : The array of roles associated with a particular status is called role-set.

(9) Norms : These are shared standards of desirable behaviour which people follow while interacting with others.

(2) Ascribed Status : A social (or a group) position (or status) assigned to a person on the basis of his/her birth or in different stages in life cycle.

(3) Adaptive Function : It refers to the requirement for the production or resources that can be employed for the attainment of goals.

(4) Dysfunctions : Those results which disturb the adaptation or adjustment of the system.

(5) Esteem : People occupying the same position (or status) may vary in their role performance and the evaluation of role has been called as esteem.

(6) Prestige : This refers to the status attached to the office or combination of them. Some positions ranked high occupy high prestige.

(7) Pattern-Maintenance : It reinforces the basic values of the social system through rewards for conformity and check on disruptive behaviour through punishment.

(8) Preservation of Order : The ways by which the behaviour of individuals is patterned and regulated.

(9) Functions : There refer to those results which make adjustment or adaptation of a given system.

(2) Latent Functions : Those functions which are neither intended nor recognized are called latent functions.

(3) Multiple Roles : This refers to the complex of roles associated not with a single status (or position) but with. different positions or statuses.

(4) Macro Level of Social Structure : The large social pattern that shapes an entire society.

(5) Manifest Functions : Those objective consequences which are intended and expected, and which contribute to the adjustment or adaptation to the system.

(6) Master Status : This is a status that dominates over other statuses of an individual.

(7) Micro Level Social Structure : The pattern of personal interaction that defines everyday life.

(8) Values : H.M. Johnson defines values, “as a conception, or standard, cultural or merely personal, by which things are compared and approved or disapproved relative to one another - held to be relatively desirable or undesirable, more meritorious or less, more or less correct.

II. The Role-Set of a doctor in a hospital :

For instance, a doctor in a hospital is interacting with other doctors of the hospital, with nurses and other employees of the hospital, with the patients, and with the doctors of other hospitals and even with the doctors of other country for interaction.

2. Example : For instance, a Sapanch of the village may be asked to take a decision in a case where his family members are vis-a-vis other villagers involved.

The demands from these two sets (or groups) of people are in direct conflict. Sometimes, performance of one-role may be in conflict with another role. This situation is called as role-conflict.

2. Institutions (such as family) are the ideas and customs, around which life in a society is organized.

3. Members of the social system are usually supposed to follow the norms, but there may be some differences.

(b) Caste : It is a social grouping based on birth. It entails hierachy, hereditary occupation and restrinction on intermarriage and interdining between one caste and another.

(c) Class : This refers to individuals who share economic resources and its allied advantages.

(d) Unequal Distribution of Resources : Every society has unequal distribution of resources—wealth or property, power and prestige among its members. It is called unequal distribution of resource.

(e) Social Stratification : Division of society into various strata is social stratification. It refers to the division of population into strata, one on top of another.

(f) Wealth or Property : It is the value of a person's family total economic assets, including

(i) income, (ii) personal property and (iii) income-generating property.

(b) Psychological Gratification : It is non-material resources or responses from others that bring contentment, well-being or pleasure or honour or a person.

(c) Gender Inequality : It refers to unequal opportunities for education and income among males and females.

(d) Ethnicity : It refers to peoplehood. It is the means by which a community establishes its identity as distinguished from others.

(e) Gender : It refers to differential treatment given to men and women in society.

(f) Sanskritization : The process of change whereby a relatively low caste tries to improve its position in caste hierarchy by imitiating the ways and life-styles of a relatively high-caste.

(b) Accomodation : This is a process of social interaction among individuals in a society by which they try to adjust themselves.

(c) Co-operation : It is a social process where individuals interact among themselves and work together. In this process they try to adjust among themselves.

(d) Social Process : As interaction takes place within a social environment, it can be called a social process. Pawl B. Horton and Chester L.

Hunt define the term social process as “repetitive interaction patterns of behaviour which are commonly found in social life.”

(e) Conflict : Conflict is usualy on the basis of economy and unequal control on wealth and ownership particularly based on means of productions. It means ownership of means of production creates conflict. According to Karl Marx (father of modern scientific socialism), unequal control on ownership, wealth and product creates conflict on economic level.

(a) Social Contacts are a pre-requisite of interaction.

(b) Communication is the medium of interactions.

(c) The different ways or modes in which social forces operate influence the kinds of interaction, and

(d) Social interaction always occurs within a social structure.

1. Status may be ascribed or achieved. Ascribed status is assigned to an individual either on the basis of his birth and biological characteristics such as sex, age and race or the status of his/her parents.

2. Ascribed status is assigned to an individual by the social system which remain unchangeable.

3. Example : For instance, an individual born in a royal family becomes prince or princess.

4. Similarly in our country Caste plays a vital role in determining the status of a person which is an example of ascribed status.

5. Achieved Status is a position which a person obtains through personal (his or hers, efforts.

6. Example : For instance, one can become a doctor, engineer or lawyer by one's own efforts. Persons occupying the status may be replaced but the position will continue to exist in the social structure.

(2) Need of Cooperation : Human beings have to cooperative to meet their basic needs, and to produce and reproduce themselves and their world.

(3) Different forms of Cooperation : Changed from one historical society to another. For example, it would recognise that in simple societies where no surplus grains (or agricultural products or even industrial products) or manufactured product was produces, there was cooperation between individuals and groups who were not divided on class or caste or race lines. But in societies where surplus is produced— whether feudal or capitalist (former was mainly an agricultural and later was an industrial)—the dominant class appropriates the surplus and cooperation would necessarity involve potential conflict and competition.

(4) The factory owner and the factory worker do cooperate in their everyday work. Total production depends on their good mutual relations and cooperation.

(5) In agricultural operations some members of the society grow wheat and the others grow rice. Some people grow vegetables or fruits and some people rear animals or bees or fish or do some other works or tasks related with agriculure. Some people prepare tools and implements required for cultivation. Some prepare agricultural land, sow seeds, water fields or plants or at proper time cut the crops and bring grains or products into the market.

1. Merton makes a distinction between manifest and latent functions. According to

Manifest, functions are those objective consequences which are intended and expected and which contribute to the adjustment or adaptation to the system.

2. The Latent functions are those which are neither intended nor recognized in the society. Merton again makes three different types of manifest and latent functions i.e., function, dysfunction and non-function, as shown in the below given diagram :

(2) Many kinds of conflicts also exist within nations. These conflicts may be based on caste, class, gender or status. Constitutional changes, political resolution can brings the end of such conflicts.

(3) From time to time we listen or read about conflict between advanced and develop in countries. These conflicts come up due to clash of interest or differences of their ideologies etc.

(4) Developing countries are today arenes for conflict between the old and the new. The old order is no longer able to meet the new forces, nor the new wants and aspirations of the people, but neither is it moribund—in fact, it is still very much alive.

(5) The conflict produces much unseemly argument, discord, confusion and on occassion, even bloodshed. Under the circumstances, it is tempting for the sociologist to look to the good old peaceful days in sheer nostalgia. But a moment's reflection should convince him that the old order was not conflict-free and that it persetrated in human cruelties on vast sections of the population. A theoretical approach that regards conflict as abnormal, or that invests equilibrium with a special value in the name of science, can be a handicap in studying developing societies.

Talcolt Parsons, an American Sociologist, was the main exponent of the social system theory. The main features of his system theory may be discussed in brief as follows :

1. The social system is made up of the interaction between two or more actors called Ego and Alter.

2. During the process of interaction, each member is an actor as well as an object of orientation for other actors and for himself.

3. Actors in the interaction process are oriented towards a goal or set of goals.

4. The actors are confronted with a variety of situational conditions as societal environments and ecological constraints.

5. The actor's orientation to the situation is both motivational and value-oriented.

(i) Role is the expected behaviour of an individual who hold a certain status.

(ii) Status is a position occupied by an individual in a group or in society.

2. Role is the dynamic aspect of the status and it is the status which determines the behaviour pattern, obligations and privileges.

3. Each distinctive status, whether ascribed or achieved has certain role expectation. However, actual performance will differ from individual to individual.

4. Each status has its own role-set. Robert K. Merton defines role-set as “complement of role relationships which persons have by virtue of occupying a particular social status.”

For Example, as a student in the school or college you are interacting with your class teacher, with other teachers of the school, with the Principal, with office staff as well as with your fellow students and with the students from other classes. While interacting with all these people as a student in the school, your role will differ. This complex of roles that accures to a single status is your role-set as a student.

At home your role-set will be different.

A distinction can also be made between role-set and multiple-roles. The term multiple-roles refers to the complex of roles associated not with a single social status but with different statuses. The different statuses occupied by a person become his status set and each of the statuses has its distinctive role-set.

1. Norms refer to the guidelines for people while interacting with other persons.

2. Norms are shared standards of desirable behaviour. They indicate how people have to bahave in a particular situation.

3. Norms are rules followed by people in different situations.

4. Norms vary from society to society, from group to group and from situation to situation.

5. What may be most desirable action in one society, may be considered disgraceful in another.

6. Norms are prescriptive as well as pros*** iptive, which means that norms prescribe or require us to behave in a certain way but at the same time prohibit people from doing certain activities.

7. How one has to behave in classroom (in a group of students and a teacher) in the presence of a teacher in a court in the presence of a Judge will be applicable to those who are present in that situation.

8. Some norms are more important to the members as compared to some other norms.

9. Norms also govern our emotions and perceptions. For example, people are supposed to feel sad and depressed while attending a funeral Members of all societies follow these norms automatically without questioning.

Talcolt Parsons, an American Sociologist lists four functions which he thinks are essential for the survival of any social system. The functions are :

(i) The adaptive function,

(ii) The goal-attaintment function,

(iii) The integrative function, and

(iv) The pattern maintenance and tension management function.

A brief description of all these four functions is given below :

(i) The adaptive function refers to the requirement for the production of resources that can be employed for the attaintment of goals.

(ii) The goal-attaintment function refers to the maximization of capacity to attain collective goals.

(iii) The integrative-function refers to the harmonious relation between members through allocation of rights and obligations, rewards and facilities.

(iv) The pattern-maintenance and tension management function refers to the reinforcement of the basic values of the social system.

Social system is a set of patterned relations among structural elements of a society. Factory is an institution which does the essential function for the continuity and survival of the society to satisfy the economic needs. It is used by the production of goods. Since no individual can perform all the activities alone, division of labour and specialization very important in factory. The organisations of factories performing the function of production may vary from society to society but every society produces good in factories and distribution of all goods is done by the society.

All societies develop some values, norms and rules for the allocation of goods and in factories.

In modern industrially developed societies goods produced by the factories might be more than needed but the chief problem arises in distribution of the goods produced in the factories. Insufficient production of goods or adverse working conditions of the factories or even improper distribution can lead to confusion and chaos in the society.

1. Sub-groups of various types and their interrelationships on the basis of relis done ative norms.

2. Roles of various types, within the larger system and within the sub-groups. Each role is connected with others through rational norms.

3. Regulative norms governing sub-groups, roles, and

4. Culture Values

He further says that any one of these elements - a type of sub-group, a role, a social norm or a value may be called a Partial Structure.

1. Horizontal mobility refers to the transition of a person from one social position (status) to another position (status) of the same rank.

Example : If a teacher is transferred in the same rank (post or position or status) from one school to another school, it is a example of horizontal mobility.

2. Vertically mobility suggests transition from one social position (rank or status) to another position of higher or lower rank (status or position). In this way, there can be upward vertical mobility or downward vertical mobility.

Example : For instance, if the teacher gets promotion in the school where she/he is working or in a school where she/he transferred it will be an instane of vertical mobility.

Even though no stratification system is completely rigid or totally flexible, systems of stratification have been classified into (a) Open and (b) closed system.

1. In an open system of stratification, the boundaries between the levels or strata are relatively more flexible and may be influenced, positively or negatively, by people's achieved statuses.

A person can achieve a status or the basis of individual ability and effort, or merit.

Open systems are assumed to have some degree of social mobility.

Example : America class system is an example of open system of stratification.

2. In a close system, the boundaries between strata and rigid and people's positions are set by their ascribed status. Here status is ascribed to the individuals by society more or less arbitrarily and permanently on the basis of traits over which they have no contol such as the caste status, skin colours, gender or age group etc.

In a closed system social status (or position) is generally hereditary; individual ability and efforts usually do not count.

3. An open system allows social

1. Co-operation and accomodation can be considered separately. But they are the processes of association.

2. They do not represent dissociation.

3. Both co-operation and accomodation help in the formation of groups life, consensus, integration, assimilation and harmony in the society. They do not emerge in isolation.

4. Co-operation represents all relations among persons or groups which work together towards a common end. Whereas, accomodation and assimilation represent different stages or degrees in the co-operative process.

5. In accommodation barriers may break partially, social distance may be reduced and formal relations may also be established. Under these circumstances groups can work together through co-operation and thus accomodation takes place.

1. Whenever groups meet or sit together, some interactions take place. Interactions may lead to diffusion or spread as well as mutual interchange of cultural traits.

2. Usually, diffusion of cultural traits takes place from a dominant culture to a less dominant culture but it is a two way process.

3. Two groups contribute to cultural interchange in varying proportions, depending upon respective group size, prestige and many other factors. Sometimes, some groups are found to be strenuously preventing such diffusion. But they do not fully succeed in protecting their culture from such sort of cultural interchange.

4. Horton and Hunt define assimiliation in the following manner, “the process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons and groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation.'

5. However, sometimes assimilations is not easily possible. When extreme differences in cultural background exist, assimilation is not possible. Such a process may give rise to conflict in society.

1. In every society, often people are seen to be constantly struggling with one another for possession of some rewards or achieving some benefits. There is always a limited supply of money and goods, jobs are scarce, prestige, honour, position, power, love and several other things are very difficult to achive, competition for getting these scarce resources is, therefore, found in every society.

2. Horton and Hunt define competition as, the process of speaking to obtain a reward by surpassing all rivals. As people cannot be satisfied or abundance of desired things. Competition may be personal, as and when two persons contest, for dominance in the national policy. Competition may be between individuals or between groups.

3. Competition is present in all societies aming their members. But degrees of competition greatly differ from society to society. The means of fulfilling desires are always limited by cultural norms. To gratify their wants or desires groups or individuals interact according to a set of rules. This interaction is called competition.

4. In competition, they make effort to check each other's attaintment of objective or goal. But they do not use force or make effort to finish one another. They also do not use coercion, terror, etc.

Example : For instance the advertising agency of a car company wants new purchases by extolling or even exaggerating the qualities and strengths of the new models of their cars produced by the company. The content of the advertisement may not interfere with the qualities of cars of any other particular company.

1. Co-operation is found in primary groups and secondary groups. Co-operation in primary group is based on blood relations, emotions and mutual obligations. On the other hand, in secondary groups co-operation is based on a definite objective and collective interest. Impersonal nature of cooperation is found in such group.

2. In primary group co-operation is based on the feeling of mutual obligations. Cooperation is equally important in primary as well as in secondary group. Most large organisations are networks of smaller primary groups in which cooperation functions on a face-to-face basis involving many highly personal relationships.

3. In primary group direct cooperation can be seen while in secondary group indirect cooperation in seen.

(I) Meaning of Social Structure

The description of the social structure requires three sets of features. These are : (i) the society consist of males and females, adults and children, different occupational and religious groups and so on, (ii) the interrelationship between different parts such as relationship between husband and wife, between parents and children and between various groups, and (iii) all the parts of the society are put together to work as a unit.

In short, the term social structure refers to the way the various parts are organized and follow stable patterns of collective rules, roles and activities.

Although the structure itself remains invisible, it silently shapes our actions. The basic elements of social structure which guides our actions are statuses, social roles, norms and values.

(II) Elements of Social Structure :

1. Status : It is a position occupied by an individual in a group or in a society. Every society and every group has many such positions and all individuals occupy many such positions. The status of an individual differs with the type of the group or community. For example, your status in a school or collegs is different from that at home.

2. Role : Role is the expected behaviour of an individual who holds a certain status. It is the dynamic aspect of the status and it is the status which determines the behaviour pattern, obligations and privileges.

3. Norms : Norms refer to the guidelines people follow while interacting with other persons. Norms are shared standards of desirable behaviour. They indicate how people have to behave in a particular situation. Norms are rules followed by people in different situations. Norms differ from society to society, from group to group and from situation to situation. What may be the most desirable action in one society may be considered disgraceful in another.

4. Values : Harry M. Johnson has defined values as a conception or standard, cultural or merely personal by which things are compared and approved or disapproved relative to one another held to be relatively desirable or undesirable more meritorious or less, more or less correct.

What is status ? Describe its types.I. Meaning of Status :

(a) In simple words we can say that status is a position occupied by an individual in a group or in a society.

(b) Birth and Achieved Status :

(i) Interaction among the members in a social situation takes place on the basis of identity of each participant. This identity of an individual is established either or the basis of his birth or on the basis of his achievements, which refers to his position of status in a group or in a society.

(ii) Every society and every group has many such positions and all individuals occupy many such positions. The status of an individual differs with the type of the group or community.

(iii) For example, your position in a college or in a school is different from that at home. In college or school your status is that of a student but at home you may be son or daughter and brother or sister.

II. Types of Status :

(a) Status may be achieved or ascribed.

(i) Ascribed status is assigned to an individual either on the basis of his birth and biological characteristics such as sex, age and race or the status is assigned to an individual by the social system which remains unchangeable.

(ii) For example, a person born in a royal family becomes prince or princess. Similarly in India caste plays an important role in determining the status of an individual, which is an example of ascribed status.

(iii) Achieved status is a position which an individual attains through personal efforts. For example, one can become a doctor, engineer or lawyer by one's own efforts.

(iv) Persons occupying the status may be replaced but the positions will continue to exist in the social structure.

(b) Higher and Low Status : Each person holds several different statuses, but some status may be ranked higher than the others in a society. Totality of stauses of an individual is known as status set.

(c) Master Status : However, a person is also known by a master status. For instance, a teacher in a university is known as professor, though he may also be an occupant of many other statuses. Such as members of a club. President of teachers association and a citizen. However, a key (or main) status (or position), namely professor is his master status.
(d) Prestige and Esteem : Prestige is determined by the position that a person occupies whereas esteem is evaluated on the basis of role performance. Since a person's ability to carry out roles varies, occupants of a similar or the same position may be held in different degrees of esteem. For instance, school principals have the same prestige but their differential role performance earns them different degrees of esteem.

A brief description is given below of all these basic functions considered necessary for society :

(i) Recruitment of Members :

(a) Sexual reproduction is one of the basic methods of recruitment of the new members in all societies.

(b) The new members can also be recruited through immigration and annexation.

(c) The function of sexual reproduction is organized and regulated through family and marriage, the principal social organisation and institution in all societies.

(d) Since sex relations are a necessary condition of procreation, the principle of legitimacy is very significant. In most societies childern born outside marriage are not accepted as legitimate.

(c) However, the norms governing the behaviour of the members will depend on the culture of the society which shapes and modifies their life.

(f) There are certain norms which are generally found in all societies. For example, sexual relations between parents and children, between brother and sister are considered incest taboo which is found in all societies.

(ii) Socialization :

(a) This is second vital function essential for the continuity and survival of society.

(b) Socialization may be defined as the process of learning by which a biological man is transformed into a social animal. It is a process by which a human infant learns the norms, rules and skills of the society.

(c) To meet the demand of socialization there have to the some organizations, which will help the child to learn all the values and ethos around which the system is organized.

(d) Socialization is carried both formally and informally. The informal process of learning begins in the family as soon as the child is born.

(e) In the family, a child learns several things while interacting with parents and siblings.

(f) Informal socialization also takes place through peer groups as well as through neighbours.

(g) Formal process of socialization begins when a child goes to school. In school, interaction with teachers and other children with various socio-economic backgrounds assists the child to learn some basic values and norms of the society.

(h) Socialization is a continuous process and goes on even when an individual becomes adult and even when he becomes old.

(iii) Production and Distribution of Goods and Services :

(a) Third function, which is necessary for the continuity and survival of the society is to fulfil the economic requirements of its members.

(b) In economic needs, it is not only the production of goods and services but their distribution in an orderly and sufficient manner is also necessary. Since no individual can perform all the activities alone, division of labour and specialization become very significant.

(c) The economic organizations performing this duty may vary from society to society but every society produces goods and distributed them.

(d) All societies develop some norms and values for the allocation of goods and services.

(e) In modern developed societies goods might be more than needed but the main problem arises in distribution. Improper distribution can lead to confusion and chaos in the society.

(iv) Preservation of Order :

(a) All societies adopt a certain way by which the behaviour of individuals is patterned and regulated. This is essential to protect the society from destruction from within, this is done in formal and informal ways.

(b) Normals, folkways, mores and group-pressure are the informal ways not only to mould the behaviour but also to restrain and discipline the members.

(c) Conformity to norms is esssential as non-conformity and threaten the integration of the group.

(d) If members fail to abide by the rules, society will become disorganized.

(e) If primitive societies, people's behaviour was controlled by informal ways.

(f) But in modern societies, besides informal ways, formal ways are also used to control the behaviour. In modern societies, formal sanctions are necessary to maintain order such as law, courts etc.

1. The Micro-Level and the Macro-Level of Social Structure.

(a) Social structure of any society can be discerned at the micro-level and also at the macro-level.

(b) The study of any specific community, or a village will be considered as the micro-level, whereas the study of social structure of any society as a whole (e.g., Indian society) will be considered as the macro-level study.

2. Spencer's Role in Development of Use of the term Social Structure.

Herbert Spencer was a British scholar. He was most probably the first person to use the term social structure in Sociology. He saw analogy between society and living organism. During course of his study he found the following similarities between society and organism :

(i) Both society and organism grow and develop.

(ii) Both (society and organism) increase in size, complexity and differentiation.

(iii) Differentiation in structure is accompanied by differentiation in function.

(iv) Parts of the whole (society and its structure) and inter-dependent and change in any part affects other parts of social structure.

(v) In both society and organism, the life of the whole can be destructed but the parts will live on for a while.

3. Brown's Role in Exponent of Structural Approach.

(a) A.R. Radeliffe Brown, was a British Social Anthropologist. He was the chief exponent of structural-functional approach. According to him, human beings are the components of social structure who are connected by a complex network of social relations. He used the term social structure to devote the network of actually existing relation.

(b) A.R. Radeliffe Brown urged that society is a reality and an end in itself. He said that social and cultural phenomenon could be explained in social terms.

Conclusion : The levels of social structural analysis are chiefly based on the following assumptions :

(i) For continuity and survival of a society, it is essential that these must be some minimal integration of its parts.

(ii) To maintain integration or solidarity, the parts must perform some functions; and

(iii) Each society has some structural features which contribute to the maintenance of essential solidarity.

(2) A woman demanding her share in the greedy shrew or ‘Lak lene Wali’ (who is claimant of her right). There was also a close connection between these feelings and the apparently observes ones of the desire to continue to be part of the natal family be actively contributing to its prosperity or being available to deal with its crises.

(3) Cooperative behaviour can also be seen as a product of deep conflicts in society. But when these conflicts are not expressed openly or challenged, the impression remains that there is no conflict, but only cooperation.

A functionalist view generally uses the term accommodation to explain situations such as the one described above, where women would prefer not to claim property rights in their natal home. It would be seen as an effort to compromise and co-exist despite conflict.

(4) The idea of cooperation rests on certain assumptions about human behaviour. It is said that without human cooperation it would be difficult for human life to survive.

Further it is argued that even in the animal world we witness cooperation, whether they be ants or bees or mammals. Sociology for the most part did not agree with the assumption that human nature is necessarily nasty and bruitish. For Emile Durkheim solidarity, the moral force of society is fundamental for our understanding of cooperation and thereby the functioning of society.

(5) The role of division of labour — which imples cooperation—is precisely to fulfill certain needs of society. The divisoin of labour is at the same time a law of nature and also a moral rule of human conduct.

(6) Emile Durkheim disintiguished between mechanical and organised solidarity that characterised pre-industrial and complex industrial societies respectively. Both are forms of cooperation in society. Mechanical solidaity is the form of cohesion that is based fundamentally on sameness. Most of the members of such societies live very similar lives, with little specialisation or division of labour beyond that associated with age and sex. Members feel bonded together essentially by their shared beliefs and sentiments their common conscience and consciousness.

(7) Organic solidarity is that form of social cohesion that is based on division of labour and the resulting interdependence of members of society. As people become more specially, they also become more dependent upon each other. A family engaged in subsistence farming may survive with little or no help from similar homesteaders. But specialised workers in a garment or a car manufacturing factory cannot survive without a host of other specialised workers supplying their basic needs.

(8) Karl Marx distinguishes human life from animal life. He said that cooperation in human life is different from cooperation in animal life. For humans not only adjust and accommodate to cooperate but also alter society in that process. For example, men and women over the ages had to adjust to natural constraints. Various technological innovations over time not only transformed human life but in some sense natura too. Humans in cooperating thus do not passively adjust and accomodate but also change the natural or social world to which they adjust.

(9) While both Durkheim from a functionalist view and Marx from a conflict perspective emphasise cooperation is not voluntary in a society where class exists. He argues, “The social power i.e., the multiplied productive force, which arises through the cooperation of different individuals as it is caused by the division of labour, appears to these individuals, since their cooperation is not voluntary but has come about naturally, not as their own united power, but as an alien force existing outside them... Marx used the term alienation to refer to the loss of control on the part of workers over the concrete content of labour, and over the products of their labour. In other words, workers lose control over how to organise their own work; and they lose control over the fruits of their labour. Contrast, for example, the feeling of fulfilment and creativity of a weaver or potter or ironsmith with that of a worker involved in a factory whose sole task may be to pull a lever or press a button throughout the day. Cooperation in such a situation would be enforced.

II. Bases of Conflict : The bases of conflict vary. It could be class or caste, tribe or gender, ethnicity or religious community. As young students you are well aware of the range of conflicts that exist in society. The scale and nature of different conflicts that occur are however different.

III. Changes in nature and forms of conflicts : A widely held commonsense perception is that conflicts in society are new. Sociologists have drawn attention to the fact that conflicts change in nature and form at different stages of social development.

IV. Conflict in Indian Society and its Causes : But conflicts have always been part of any society. Social change and greater assertion of democratic rights by disadvantaged and discriminated groups make the conflict more visible. But this does not mean that the causes for conflict did not exist earlier. The quote in the box emphasises this. It is also important to understand that conflict appears as a discord or over clash only when it is openly expressed.

V. Example of Conflict : For example, the existence of a peasant movement is an overt expression of a deep rooted conflict over land resources. But the absence of a movement does not imply the absence of a conflict. Hence, this chapter has emphasised the relationship between conflict, involuntary cooperation and also resistance.

Examination of some of the conflict its relationship with competition and cooperation : Let us examine some of the conflicts that exist in society and also the close relationship that exists between competition, cooperation and conflict. We just take two instances here. The first is the family and household. The second, is that of land based conflict.

(1) Traditionally the family and household were often seen as harmonious units where cooperation was the dominant process and altruism the driving principle of human behaviour. The last three decades have seen a great deal of questioning of this assumption by feminist analysis. Scholars such as Amartya Sen have noted the possibility of enforced cooperation.

(2) Since, conflict is often not overtly expressed, it has been found that subaltern or subordinate sections, whether women in households or peasants in agrarian societies, develop different strategies to cope with conflict and ensure cooperation.

Findings of many sociological studies seem to suggest that convert conflict and overt cooperation is common.

(2) An anecdote of a school teacher who recounted her experience with children in a remote area in Africa draws attention to the fact that competition itself has to be explained sociologically and not as a natural phenomena. The anecdote refers to the teacher's assumption that the children will naturally rejoice at the idea of a competitive race where the winner would get a chocolate as a prize. To her surprise, her suggestion not only did not evoke any enthusiasm but instead seeemed to cause considerable anxiety and distress.

(3) On probing further they expresses their distaste for a game where there would be ‘winners’ and ‘losers’. This went againts their idea of fun, which meant for them a necessarily cooperative and collective experience, and not a competitive one where the rewards necessarily exclude some and reward one or few.

(4) In the contemporary world however competition is the dominant norm and practice. Classical sociological thinkers such as Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx have noted the growth of individualism and competition respectively in modern societies. Both developments are intrinsic to the way modern capitalist society functions. The stress is no greater efficiency and greater profit maximisation. The underlying assumptions of capitalism are :

(i) expansion of trade;

(ii) division of labour;

(iii) specialisation; and

(iv) hence rising productivity.

(6) And these processes of self-sustaining growth are fuelled by the central theme of capitalism : rational individuals in free competition in the market place, each striving to maximise profits.

(7) The ideology of competition is the dominant ideology in capitalism. The logic of this ideology is that the market operates in a manner that ensures greatest efficiency. For example competition ensures that the most efficient firm survives. Competition ensures that the students with higher marks or best studies get admission into prestigious colleges. And then get the best jobs. In all cases the 'best' refers to that which ensures the greatest material rewards.

(8) Views that humans naturally like to compete has to be understood critically like all other naturalist explanations (see page 8 of earlier book). Competition as a desirable value flourished with the onset of capitalism. Read the extracts in the box and discuss.

(9) Competition, and the whole laissez-faire economy of 19th century capitalism, may have been important in promoting economic growth. The exceptionally rapid development of the American economy may be attributable to the greater scope of competition in the United States. But still we cannot produce any exact correlations between the extent of competition, or the intensity of the competitive spirit, and the rate of economic growth in different societies. And on the other hand, there are grounds for supposing that competition has other less welcome effects.

(2) Conflict is usually on the basis of economy and unequal control on wealth and ownership particularly based on means of production (e.g., land, capital, labour, means of transportation, means of power, means of communication, raw material etc). It means ownership of means of production creates conflict. According to Karl Marx unequal control on ownership of wealth and produce creates conflict on economic level.

As a sociologist I can explain conflict in the following way :

1. Conflict disrupts social unity. Conflict is a highly disrupting means to settle any complex problem.

2. Strikes in factories or industries or in offices and big markets of cities and towns may makes thousands of workers and employee idle. It may also prove costly in terms of machinery.

3. Martial conflicts may ruin and disintegrate several familities. It also adversly affects the security of the children.

4. Caste conflicts reduce the inter-caste relationship and unity in the village. It can check growth and development (social as well as economic) of the people. It makes them weaker in solving their common social and other deep-rooted issues and problem.

5. Religious conflicts may prevent several communities from facing their problems in a united spirit.

6. Ideological and political rivalries and conflicts can disturb academic institutions such as colleges and universities. For example several academic institutions have recently been disturbed and even shut down, sometimes, on account of conflicts basically political in nature. This has seriously disturbed research and education and ruined the careers of many scholars.

(a) Wealth or Property is the value of a person's or family's total economic assets, including (i) income, (ii) personal property, and (iii) income generating property.

(b) Power : It is the ability of individuals or groups to achieve their ends in spite of opposition from others.

(c) Psychological gratification : It is non-material resources or responses from others that bring contentment, well-being or pleasure or honour to a person. Such gratification are generally as intensely sought as the rewards of property and power.

Comment : Denial or absence of any of these rewards (i.e, explained in above mentioned points (a), (b) and (c)) is usually-accompanied by the denial or absence in other kinds of rewards also, though, it may not always happen.

Example : (a) For instance, an individual with low income or poor economic resources may have a low social esteem and therefore a shortage or psychic gratification. This may be easily viewed as a significant characteristic of the uneven distribution of rewards of wealth and power also.

(6) Sometimes, of course, a person may have a lot of income but no educational qualification and the prestige which it carries. Ultimately, balance of gratification and deprivation determines a person's status in society.

Conclusion : Social inequality in the distribution of different rewards or desired goods and services manifests iteself in a country like India through differences of class, caste, or status groups, power, ethnicity and even gender. Generally these different social bases overlap. This is why one usually finds that caste and class status go together. Also, gender inequality generally leads to unequal opportunities for education and income among females and males.

1. Society is an aggregation of a number of individuals. They are interrelated with one another through a network of social relations.

2. A person has to play different roles with a number of persons according to his different social position in the society. For instance, a person may play roles as a father, husband, son, grandson, grandfather, employee of an organisation, members of a club, political party, religious group etc. Through these different roles he comes in contact with several peoples who in turn interact with him. This situation gives rise to a process known as integration.

3. As interaction takes place within a social environment, it can be called a social process. Paul B. Horton and Chester L. Hunt (1972) define the term social processes as ‘repetitive interaction pattern of behaviour which are commonly found in social life.’

4. Interaction goes on continuously in the society as ongoing process. Social and culture themselves are the products of social interactions. The following four aspects are important for social integration :

(i) Social contracts are a pre-requisite of interaction.

(ii) Communication is the medium of interactions.

(iii) The different ways or modes in which social forces operate influence the types of interaction, and

(iv) Social interaction always occurs within a social structure.

5. Both physical proximity and mental contact are essential for interaction. Exchange of meaningful responses is a significant aspect of interaction. Contact is possible through communication between the individuals and the groups. There are may be several means of communication.

Talks, discussion, gossips and cultural activities etc. are the means of communication in the less developed societies.

6. Radio talk, drama, cinema, transport and newspapers are the means of communication in developed societies. Even though social interaction is an ongoing process. It is not always smooth and integrative. Both integrative and disintegrative forces may operate at the same time in social interaction.

7. The integrative force manifest themselves through co-operation and equilibrium whereas the disintegrative forces are usually manifested through competition and conflict. These are different factors which influence the interaction processes in society but heredity influences and cultural influences are the most vital forces among them.

1. Co-operation is derived from two Latin words ‘Co’ means together and ‘Operari’ means to work.

2. Co-operation is an associative social process. It is an essential part of a society—a society cannot exist without co-operation among individuals.

3. Co-operation may be found in a small group consistin of two members.

Example : For instance, husband and wife cooperate with each other. It is the basis of family formation in a society. At the same time, cooperation may be found in a large group like the United Nations.

4. Among the primitive societies the forms of co-operation are generally ‘traditional’ in nature—their co-operation is often without any conscious effort.

5. In modern society people generally carry out eleboarte plan for deliberate co-operative activities.

6. Under co-operation, people regard each other's wishes and carry out activities unitedly.

II. Various Forms of Co-operation :

1. Co-operation is found in primary groups (such as family) and secondary groups (such as trade Union).

(a) Co-operation in primary group is based on blood relations, emotions and mutual obligations. Every individual becomes a part of many small groups and adjusts himself in the co-operative group life.

(b) Everyone tries to adjust himself in the family, recreation groups, work groups, etc... and finds satisfaction in groups life through the give and take relationship.

(c) Among the kins, duties, responsibilities, help and co-operation are based on the feeling of mutual obligations.

(d) The person who cannot take part in cooperative activities successfully may be isolated from group life.

(e) Hortin and Hunt (1972) observe that cooperation is vital not merely in primary group, but it is closely related to secondary group also.

(f) Most large organisations are networks of smaller primary groups in which co-operation functions on a face-to-face basis involving several highly personal relationships.

2. (a) Co-operation in secondary groups is based on a definite objective and collective interest. Impersonal nature of co-operation is found in such groups.

(b) In the large economic, political, administrative, religious and governmental organisation, members do not even known each other but they co-operate with one another. For instance, the management, administration, protection, distribution and sale of cloth manufactured, in a textile company is largely based on secondary co-operation among a large number of worker, employees, officers, engineers, managers and directors. They do not evn have personal contact and do not know each other but their co-operation helps the organisation in meeting its annual target of cloth production and also making profit.

The above two forms of co-operation, namely primary group co-operation and secondary group co-operation and principally based on two basic kinds of relationships. The first one can be termed as direct co-operation and the second one can be called as indirect co-operation.

3. Direct co-operation is seen in the closed social groups who are related with each other through blood ties, as in the case of family, lineage, class groups, kin-groups, etc. The members living in these social groups have intimacy and co-operation on the basis of love, affection, duties, responsibilities, obligations through their different kinds of roles within the respective social structure.

4. In some societies there are systems of barter exchange and reciprocity. These are forms of co-operation among the members of these societies in the economic field. Such co-operation is guided by customs, traditions and folkways.

5. Traditionally Indian caste system was functioning on the basis of Jajmani system. This was a type of co-operation among various caste groups. There was interdependence among the different castes on the basis of contribution they made to the life of each other.

6. The co-operation and interdependence in caste are based on traditions and customs. The Brahmans (ब्राह्मण) offer priestly services to all castes of the village and in return they receive agricultural products from the agriculturist castes, clothes from weavers caste, iron tools from blacksmith, earthen pots from potter, etc. All these non Brahman castes by following this tradition, exchange their goods and services among themselves.

(a) Accomodation is an associative social process. It does not take place all of sudden or instantly. It emerges through interaction between individuals or groups.

(b) When interaction gives rise to conflict, it may persist for a considerable period of time. After a long period of conflict, individuals feel the urge for mitigating the conflict.

(c) Sometimes, both the parties understand that conflict is useless. It reduces their energy and money. They feel that long-term conflict is harmful to them. They look forward to some sort of co-operation to reduce the magnitude of their conflict more often than not their differences persist. In spite of these differences they try to adjust themselves. In this way, they develop the habit of adjustment.

(d) Moreover, individuals and groups do not exactly engage themselves over a long period of time in the same form and process of conflict. There is always alternation of behaviour and interactions with some adjustment of their relation with each other. This process of adjustment is called accomodation.

(e) R.K. Park and E.W. Burgers (1921) have urged that accommodation is a social process. Through this process individuals and groups make effort to establish harmony in the social environment.

(f) The process of accommodation emerges during the course of conflicting interactions.

(g) In this way, we can say that the process of accommodation is a conscious effort on the part of the individuals and groups to reduce the magnitude of conflict for realising co-operation and co-existence.

II. Types of Accommodation : The process of accommodation is of the following types :

Pressure, compromise, mediation, consensus and tolerance.

1. During the conflicting social relationships and interactions some pressures are exerted by the powerful individuals or groups on the weaker ones.

The weaker individuals or groups accept the pressure and thus adjustment is made.

There may be direct or indirect pressure by the strong or powerful individuals or groups. Under this situation, the weaker individuals or groups try to adjust themselves to aviod long term conflict as they find this conflict harmful to them. For instance, in our day-to-day life sometimes, we find that two neighbours develop conflicting social relations on some problems, which may be economic, social or of any other nature. For practical living both the neighbours try to minimise their conflict through adjustment. This adjustment is accepted by one neighbour since the other neighbour who is more powerful in the locality, may exert pressure on the former with the help of the other neighbouring persons.

The former neighbour, to aviod long-term conflict, accepts some conditions imposed by the other. In this way conflict is weakend and adjustment is made. There may be different processes and way by which adjustment is made and peaceful living continues in a society.

2. Compromise is another form of accommodation in which justice and rationality are seen in the process of interactions.

Persons or groups involved in competition or conflict for a long time may realise the harm of it. Both the parties may think rationally over the issues and both may sacrifice some of their demands. This may happen in our day-to-day life. Both may try to understand each other's arguments, demands, etc. from a rational point of view. They come to compromise on certain issues and try to minimise the conflict. This is what is called compromise - a form of accommodation.

Compromise is, thus, a conscious and rational action of accommodation.

3. Consensus on an issue by both the parties, individuals or groups, leads to accommodation. In social situations, consensus and compromise seem to be the same.

In modern society, accommodation is achieved through consensus. In the industrial sector, conflicts between the management and the workers with their short and long term demands are common. This conflict may sometimes lead to strike in the industry. Under these circumstances, the management and the workers and employees sit together for an agreed decision on their problems, demands and related issues. Usually through table talks, they come to a consensus. Once this consensus is obtained, peaceful interactions are restored and accommodation is possible.

4. Tolerance is third kind of accommodation. One of the best examples of tolerance leading to accommodation is found in Indian society.

Society in our country is heterogeneous. There are a number of caste groups, religious groups, linguistic groups, political groups and tribal groups.

Peaceful existence and living are inherent in the Indian social structure. It is basically based on tolerance.

1. Unlike the competitors, persons who come into conflict with one another are not restricted by rules. They often use coercion, fraud and fear.

2. The conflict process is praised by none. Nevertheless, it widely exists in society. Conflict emerges when an individual or a group tries to obtain a reward by preventing others from effectively competing. They do not try to have a reward by surpassing other competitors.

3. Horton and Hunt have defined conflict in the following words :

'Conflict in a process of seeking to obtain rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors.'

4. Conflict is more extreme and violent form leads to indiscriminate killing of opponents or their total elimination. This has occured when two religious groups have fought or engaged in communal riots.

5. In less violent forms, conflict is aimed towards displacing an opponent. This is generally done by marriage one's reputation, condemning the person or using any other device to get the competitors out of the competition.

6. In recent years, intellectual competition between different schools of thought has led to conflict in several universities. Strikes are called on, processions are taken out amid slogans. Buildings are occupied, conference and seminars are paralysed by refusing to permit the scheduled orators (or speakers) belonging to different (or opponent) schools of thought (or philosophies).

7. Personal enmity is associatied with the conflict between individuals. But group conflict is not at all personal. It does not take place due to individual quarrel or individual interest.

8. Group conflict is highly impersonal. Here interests of the groups, not of the individuals, are significant. Group faithfulness and requirements are given first preference over personal feelings.

9. However, conflict is very common for the social life. It is so common that it seems as a part of the society. Indian society is based on plural cultures and mutli-languages where inter-group conflict is commonly found. Regionalism is based on regional or group conflict.

10. One can see the cumulative nature of conflict in society. Once conflict starts, it is difficult to stop. Each aggressive act provokes a more hostile behaviour. In this way, conflict process grows more and more intense and severe.

1. In modern society, conflicts within a group may sometimes have integrative effects. Such internal conflicts have positive functions.

2. Objectives and interests of a group shift from time to time. New policies, programmes and leadership are needed to replace the old ones.

3. On occasions, contest within the group is essential. Such contests may keep the leadership active and the policies reviewed.

4. Sometimes, suppression of internal conflicts may cause discontent. Coger (1956) analyses the role of conflict in promoting unity. He writes : “In loosely structured groups and open societies, conflicts have stablishing and integrative functions for resolutions of tensions.”

5. Immediate expression of rival claims assists the social systems in readjusting the relationships by eliminating dissatisfaction. Multiple conflicts, therefore, serve the function in eliminating dissatisfaction. Multiple conflicts, therefore, serve the function in eliminating the reasons for dissociation and re-establishing unity.

6. External conflicts may also tend to integrate the groups involved. Inter-group conflicts assist to lessen intra-group hostilities and resentments. This releases the internal tensions.

7. External conflicts force members within the groups to co-operate faithfully.

8. Simmel explain how external conflict tend to integrate the groups. External conflict unifies the group through imposition and acceptance of tighter controls.

9. The country, at the time of war with outside enemy, permits its business organization to be directed towards national interests, which is not always expected in times of peace. All groups tend to centralise authority when there is need to organise resistance against outside enemy.

10. External conflicts separate a group from its enemy. They also promote federation or alliance of a group with other groups. All groups have a tendency to seek out allies intimes of conflict. But they may not be seen to do the same in times of peace.

1. Accommodation is important for the social organisation. After conflict, it requires adjustment between the parties involved. This is necessary for continuation and main tenance of the status quo in social organisation.

2. Indian society is divided into a number of castes having unequal social and economic statuses. This caste system has been based on unequal social relationships. However, throughout the Indian history, these castes have been characterised by harmonious and disharmonious relationships. This shows a continuous process of adjustment among the different caste groups, i.e., the process of accommodation.

3. After independence, efforts have been made to create adjustment among the different groups. To abolish untouchability, laws have been made and special opportunities have been provided in jobs and education for the lower castes.

4. Protection of rights of the minorities through fundamental rights is considered as the process of accommodation.

5. The history of the caste system and its development as an institution is largely written in terms of adjustment.

6. Accommodation pre-supposes adjustment. This adjustment may be found as a continuous process in the existing institutional structure. It is found at the level of individuals and groups when an individual or group tries to adjust himself / itself into some new position or status.

7. Accommodation is a vital basis of social organisation. Burgers defines social organization as the sum total of accommodation to past and present situations.

8. All the social heritage, traditions, sentiments, culture techniques are accommodations. They are acquired adjustments that are socially and not biologically transmitted.

1. Pure and limited competition.

2. Absolute and relative competition.

3. Personal and impersonal competition.

4. Creative and non-creative competition.

The explanation of the above mentioned four forms of competitions is given as below :

1. Pure and Limited Competition :

(a) Theoretically, competition may be pure. It means that competition is pursued without any cultural restrictions.

(b) Pure competition is an abstraction. When competition involves co-operation and individuals compete according to rules, it is a case of limited competition. This effectively limits competition by co-operative adherence to agreed behaviour.

2. Absolute and Relative Competition :

(a) Absolute and relative competitions are different from the earlier ones. Sometimes, individuals and groups compete for a goal which is scarce. Only the successful candidate gets it exclusively. For instance, there may by only one winner in an election to the Vice-President of India. The loser cannot share in the attainment of the office. This is known as absolute competition.

(b) On the other hand, when sometimes people compete for prestige, power, wealth, etc. in the society and also get success in their attempts, they do not hope that their competitors will have none of these acuisitions, even though the proportion in which the latter have these may be smaller. This is called relative competition.

3. Personal and Impersonal Competition :

(a) Sometimes, competition takes place between two persons. They directly interact with each other. One of them becomes succeful in achieving the desired goal. This is personal competition. For example, when several people compete for a job as aspirants they compete with one another personally.

(b) Impersonal competition is found among the big business houses when they compete with each other for marketing of the products. When radio-manufacturing firms in India compete with each other, they compete as firms, but not by way of a personal interaction among the employees of these companies.

4. Creative and Non-Creative Competition:

(a) Some competitions are creative in nature. These can produce some positive output of competition with one another for getting of objective. For instance, when traders compete with each other for attracting customers, they can, inadvertently, expand the market. In attracting the customers new products are produced with high qualities as well as of higher aesthetic value. In this way, the competition becomes truly creative and productive of desired social values.

(b) Contrary to this, some competitions are non-creative in as much as they may destroy natural resources for gaining immediate advantage. Non-creative competition is common among the oil, mining and agricultural industries, which quite often waste scarce natural resources.

D.

A.

D.

A.

D.

A.

A.

A.

D.

A.

A.

A.

A.

A.