Harappan Civilization

The Indus valley population consisted of Australoid, Mediterranean, Mongoloid and Alpine races. The cosmopolitan character of the population proves that this Indus valley was the meeting place of the people of various races.

Harappan Economy- Nearly 1000 Harappan site are known so far in the sub-continent. The Indus civilization’s economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. These advances included bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed  Craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state. There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by middlemen merchants from Dilmun. Such long distance sea trade became feasible with the innovative development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth. Some post-1980 studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the Indus Valley It is known that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheat and barley, and the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six row barley, a crop derived from the two-row barley. In view of the large number of figurines found in the Indus valley, it has been widely suggested that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother goddess symbolizing fertility. However, this view has been disputed by S. Clark. Some Indus valley seals show swastikas which are found in later religions and mythologies, especially in Indian religions such a Hinduism. The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism are present before and during the early Harappan period. Phallic symbols resembling the Hindu Shiva lingam have been found in the Harappan remains. Many Indus valley seals show animals. One famous seal shows a figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named after Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of Shiva and Rudra, In the earlier phases of their culture, the Harappans buried their dead; however, later, especially in the Cemetery H culture of the late Harrapan period, they also cremated their dead and buried the ashes in burial urns, a transition notably also alluded to in the Rigveda, where the forefathers both cremated and uncremated are invoked.

Social life - The humped bull, buffalo, ship etc. and the granary indicate the existence of a prosperous agricultural community. Some scholars believe that there was a prosperous and powerful ruling class in the Indus cities who imposed their domination on the rest. All men of the cities and the nearby areas did not enjoy social and economic equality. Those who lived in the upper portion of the cities near the forts formed a ruling class. The existence of forts has led Prof. Wheeler to surmise that the ruling class dominated over the workers and peasants from these forts. As copper was scarce, common men could hardly afford to possess copper weapons. The ruling class had a monopoly of the copper weapons by which they terrified the people and exploited the resources produced by them by fanning or by craft. The existence of two roomed tenements has led Sir Mortimer Wheeler to guess that they were perhaps workers' quarters.

In respect of the social life of the Indus people, it is suggested by scholars that there was strong family organizations among them. The craftsmen taught their skill in crafting to their children. The toys were used by children of the family. The large number of seals engraved with letters conveys the idea that there was good percentage of literacy among the Indus people. The sanitary system, the drainage system also speaks of their cleanliness and public hygiene. The seals, the terracotta figurines, the images of dancing girls prove the artistic taste of the Indus men.

Many spindles were discovered at the Harappan sites. This proves the use of cotton for weaving social cloths. Probably wool was also used. The garments might have been sewn.

Both men and women used two pieces of cloth. The men folk wore some lower garment like dhoti and upper garment like shawl. The upper garment wrapped the left shoulder. Female attire was the same as that of men. Arts and crafts and trade formed one of the main occupations of the people

There are several theories as to the origin of the Indus Velley civilization. The earliest hypothesis was that it was an early form of a Vedic and early Sanskrit civilization which would come to dominate most of South Asia, which was presumed to have been characterized by influence from Indo-European migrations. However, this theory began be rejected when no signs of the traditional culture associated with the Vedas was uncovered in that of the Indus Valley. The next theory put forward was that the civilization was of proto-Dravidian origin. This theory was first proposed by researchers from Russia and Finland who attempted to show that Indus Valley symbols could be derived from the Dravidian language group. Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahmi language), which lends credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, the proto-Dravidian origin theory is far from being confirmed due to an emphasis on linguistic connection while evidence of a broader cultural connection remains to be found.

Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley civilization did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus civilization can be found in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggests that material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments. These link "the so-called two major phases of urbanisation in South Asia". A possible natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate change that is also signaled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. Although this particular factor is speculative, and not generally accepted, the decline of the IVC, as with any other civilization, will have been due to a combination of various reasons. New geological research is now being conducted by a group led by Peter Clift, from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago in order to test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline of the Harappan.

There are several theories as to the origin of the Indus Velley civilization. The earliest hypothesis was that it was an early form of a Vedic and early Sanskrit civilization which would come to dominate most of South Asia, which was presumed to have been characterized by influence from Indo-European migrations. However, this theory began be rejected when no signs of the traditional culture associated with the Vedas was uncovered in that of the Indus Valley. The next theory put forward was that the civilization was of proto-Dravidian origin. This theory was first proposed by researchers from Russia and Finland who attempted to show that Indus Valley symbols could be derived from the Dravidian language group. Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahmi language), which lends credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, the proto-Dravidian origin theory is far from being confirmed due to an emphasis on linguistic connection while evidence of a broader cultural connection remains to be found.

Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley civilization did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus civilization can be found in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggests that material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments. These link "the so-called two major phases of urbanisation in South Asia". A possible natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate change that is also signaled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. Although this particular factor is speculative, and not generally accepted, the decline of the IVC, as with any other civilization, will have been due to a combination of various reasons. New geological research is now being conducted by a group led by Peter Clift, from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago in order to test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline of the Harappan.

There are several theories as to the origin of the Indus Valley civilization The earliest hypothesis was that it was an early form of a Vedic and early Sanskrit civilization which would come to dominate most of South Asia, which was presumed to have been characterized by influence from Indo-European migrations However, this theory began to be rejected when no signs of the traditional culture associated with the Vedas was uncovered in that of the Indus Valley. The next theory put forward was that the civilization was of proto-Dravidian origins. This theory was first proposed by researchers from Russia and Finland who attempted to show that Indus valley symbols could be derived from the Dravidian language group. Today the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern Sri Lanka, but pockets a of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, the proto-Dravidian origin theory, is far from being confirmed due to an emphasis on linguistic connection while evidence of a broader cultural connection remains to be found. Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge and by around 1700 BCE, most of the 'cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilization did not disappear suddenly and many elements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggests that material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c.1000-900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments These link "the so-called two major phases of urbanization in South Asia". A possible natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate change that is also signaled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East: The Indus Valley dimate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event as most settlements inside Chaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. Although this particular factor is speculative and not generally accepted, the decline of the IVC, as with any other civilization, will have been due to a combination of various reasons New geological research is now being conducted by a group led by Peter Gift from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate how the courses of rivers have thanged in this region since 8000 years ago in order to test whether climate or fiver reorganizations are responsible for the decline of the Harappan.

Agriculture in the Harappan Civilization - The Harappan civilization's base was followed by agricultural and livestock discovery at Harappa, Mohenjo Daro and Lothal, which was used as a storehouse for food grains.

Although there is no evidence of the tools used for agriculture, plough- marks or furrows have been indicated in plough cultivation in Kalibangan. A terracotta plough is also giving the power to the idea of cultivating hull in Banvali in Hisar district of Haryana.

People of Harappa civilization took water from the well or turned the river water into channels to irrigate it on a small scale. Among the main crops, the people of Harappa civilization grew up: wheat, barley, mustard, peas, sesame, jujube, etc. However, the evidence of rice from Lothal and Rangpur came in the form of embedded husks in pottery. The discovery of a piece of woven fabrics in Mohenjo-Daro shows that cotton was one of the other important crops. As far as the Harappan diet is concerned, it has been established that cereals, fish and animals became a part of it besides meat.

Industry and crafts in Harappa Civilization - The conclusion is that except for iron, the people of Harappan civilization knew that almost all metals get strength from the evidence which suggests that they have built gold and silver items. They were pearls of gold items, armlets, needles and other jewellery. A large quantity of silver jewellery, recipes have been discovered.

Many copper tools and weapons, which usually include axes, saws, chisels, knives, spears and arrowheads were also discovered. It is important to mention here that Harappa produced weapons, which was mostly defensive in nature because there is no evidence of arms like sword etc. Stone tools, which were commonly used, were also used in large quantities.

Copper was mainly brought from Khetri of Rajasthan. In the case of gold and silver, it has been estimated that silver from Himalayan river beds and gold from Southern India and Mesopotamia can be obtained.

Proof of use of bronze, however, is limited in limited manner. Bronze 'dance girl, the most famous example of the statue, bronze metal discovered in Mohan-Jodaro. Wearing a large number of bangles, this 'dancing girl idol is 'a naked female figure, the right hand on the hip and the dance hangs in the left hand'.

One of the most important artefacts in the Harappan civilization was to make a pearl. Precious and semi-precious stones like Agate and Cornellian were used to make pearls. Evidence of plates shops in Chanhudarro and Lothal have been found, it has also been found that the practice of the use of ivory carvings and root was also practiced in pearis, bracelets and other decree. It shows all the skilful skills that were in Haraappa's various art and crafts.

Large number of male and female terracotta sculptures, which is more than the number of men and it is believed that the worship of mother goddess is represented, has been covered with various Harappan sites. Apart from these, many varieties of models of birds, monkeys, dogs, sheep, cattle, garbage and submissive bulls have also been found.

Harappa was also involved in making utensils in the most important industries during the period of civilization. Pottery was mainly wheel-made and treated with red coatings and there was a dye in black. The painted designs include horizontal lines of different thicknesses, leaf patterns, palm and papal trees.

Different types of more than two thousand seals, which were usually squares in shape and made of statite, have been discovered from various sites. It is important to mention here that although many animals have been depicted in the seals related to Harappan civilization, there is no representation of the horse.

In addition to various types of animals, Harappan script has some signals in the Harappan civilization seals that have not yet been understood. Apart from this, the most famous of the seals is the person on which a horned man is duty Many scholars have identified this figure with the ancient form of Lord Pashupati (God of animals).

Trade in Harappan Civilization-During the Harappan Civilization, trade networks, internal and foreign (external) both within the country were an important feature of the Harappan urban economy. Due to the dependence of the urban population and supply of many other essential products in nearby rural areas, a village-city (urban-rural) inter-relation has developed. Similarly, artisans belonging to urban areas need to sell their belongings to other areas in the market this requires contact between the towns.

They were not available locally by the craftsmen in the form of various types of metals and precious stones required to make the goods, they had to be brought out from the outside. Lapis Lazuli, precious stones used to make pearls were located in Badakshan Khan in north-east Afghanistan. Turquoise and Jade have been brought from Central Asia.

In the area of external trade, people of Harappan Civilization were connected largely to Mesopotamia through oman and Behrain in the Persian Gulf. These areas have been confirmed by the presence of artefacts related to Harappan Civilization, such as pearls, seals , dice etc. Nearly two dozen Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamia cities of Susa, Ur etc. Apart from seals, other artefacts related to the Harappan Civilization have been discovered, including Harappan facilities, including potter, fake carnelian pearls and dice