Explain the striking features about the location of Vijayanagara, its water resources and its fortifications.

OR

Explain how during 16th and 17th centuries agriculture was organised around two major seasonal cycles by giving examples of different crops.

Location and Water Requirements-

(i) Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction.

(ii) The surrounding landscape is characterised by the stunning hills of granite forming a girdle around the city.

(iii) Streams flowed down to the river from the rocky outcrops.

(iv) Embankment were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying Sizes.

(v) Kamlapuram tank was source of water for irrigation as well as the needs of the royal centre.

(vi) The most prominent water works included the Hiriya Canal that drew water from the canal and supplied it for irrigation.

Fortifications:

(i) Abdur Razzaq was impressed by the fortifications of Vijayanagara.

(ii) He mentioned seven lines of forts.

(iii) These encircled not only the city but also the agricultural lands and forests.

(iv) The walls linked the hills surrounding the city.

(v) Stone blocks were used in construction.

(vi) Significance of the fortifications that it enclosed the agricultural tracts.

(vii) Second line of fortification went around the inner core of the urban complex.

(viii) A third line of fortification surrounded the royal centre within which each set of major building was surrounded by its own high walls.

(ix) There were well guarded gates.

OR

Agriculture was organised around two major seasonal cycles:

(i) Agriculture was organized around two major seasonal cycles, the Kharif (autumn) and the Rabi (spring). 187

(ii) This would mean that most regions, except those terrains that were the most arid or inhospitable, produced a minimum of two crops a year (do-fasla),

(iii) Whereas some, where rainfall or irrigation assured a continuous supply of water, even gave three crops.

(iv) This ensured an enormous variety of produce. For instance, we are told in the Ain that the Mughal provinces of Agra produced 39 varieties of crops and Delhi produced 43 over the two seasons. Bengal produced 50 varieties of rice alone.

(v) Crops such as cotton and sugarcane were jins-i kamil par excellence. Cotton was grown over a great swathe of territory spread over central India and the Deccan plateau, whereas Bengal was famous for its sugar.

(vi) Such cash crops would also include various sorts of oilseeds (for example, mustard) and lentils.

(vii) This shows how subsistence and commercial production were closely intertwined in an average peasant’s holding.

(viii) During the seventeenth century several new crops from different parts of the world reached the Indian subcontinent.

(ix) Maize (makka) , for example, was introduced into India via Africa and Spain and by the seventeenth century it was being listed as one of the major crops of western India.

(x) Vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and chillies were introduced from the New World at this time, as were fruits like the pineapple and the papaya.