Social Change And Development In India Chapter 8 Social Movements

Social Movement: A social movement is a sustained collective effort that focuses on some aspect of social change. M.S.A. Rao says that a social movement essentially involves sustained collective mobilisation through either informal or formal organisation and is generally oriented towards bringing about change in the existing system of relationships.

1. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (M. K. Gandhi),

2. Jyotiba Phule,

3. Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar,

4. E.V. Ramaswami Periyar.

1. Anit-caste movements.

2. Non-Brahman movements.

3. Social movements against untouchability.

4. The Ad-Dharam movements launched in Punjab.

5. The Satnami movements in Uttar Pradesh.

6. Narayana Guru's movement in Kerala.

7. Adi-Dravidas movements in Tamil Nadu.

8. The Scheduled Caste Federation.

9. The Republic Party.

10. The Dalit Panther Movement.

Dalits: Broadly speaking, ‘the untouchables' of the Hindu Caste system are officially known as the Scheduled Castes. The same category of castes is also called Harijan, the children of God a term coined by M. K. Gandhi in 1933. However, the word Harijan has now acquired a synonymous meaning. The members of these castes prefer to be called dalit, the oppressed.

A social movement does not occur suddenly. It begins with dissent, moves towards protests and finally takes the form of a social movement. This sequence dissent, protest and social movements represents different phases of social change. But in some cases all these may be in operation at the same time.

i) Importance of Right to Vote to Indian Citizen: Universal adult franchise or the right of every adult to vote is one of the foremost rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution. It means that we cannot be governed by anyone other than the people we have ourselves elected to represent us. This right is a radical departure from the days of colonial rule when ordinary people were forced to submit to the authority of colonial officers who represented the interests of the British Crown.

(ii) Britain and Expansion of Right to Vote: Generally United Kingdom is called mother of modern democracy. But in the beginning in Britain, not everyone was allowed to vote. Voting rights were limited to property-owning people. Chartism was a social movement for parliamentary representation in England. In 1839, more than 1.25 million people signed the People's Charter asking for universal male suffrage, voting by ballot, and the right to stand for elections without owning property. In 1842, the movement managed to collect 3.25 million signatures, a huge number for a tiny country. Yet, it was only after World War I, in 1918 that all men over 21, married women, women owning houses, and women university graduates over the age of 30, got the right to vote. When the suffragettes (women activists) took up the cause of all adult women's right to vote, they were bitterly opposed and their movement violently crushed.

An element of dissatisfaction with the existing system can be found in every society. Dissatisfaction may be caused by poverty, social discrimination or lack of privilege. People may, develop a strong desire to change the situation by raising their voices against the existing order. They may begin questioning established practices of society. This difference of opinion really reflects a desire for social change or a particular system's change social movements emerge under this situation.

Distinguishing between Social Change and Social Movements: It is important to distinguish between social change in general and social movements. Social change is continuous and ongoing. The broad historical processes of social change are the sum total of countless individual and collective actions gathered across time and space. Social movements are directed towards some specific goals. It involves long and continuous social effort and action by people.

No doubt in India it is difficult upto great extent to make a clear distinction between the old and new social movement. We can discuss this point into the following two paragraph.

(i) India has experienced a whole array of social movements involving women, peasants, dalits, adivasis and others. Can these movements be understood as 'new social movements'? Gali Omvedt in her book Reinventing Revolution points out that concerns about social inequality and the unequal distribution of resources continue to be important elements in these movements. Peasant movements have mobilised for better prices for their produce and protested against the removal of agricultural subsidies. Dalit labourers have acted collectively to ensure that they are not exploited by upper-caste landowners and money-lenders. The women's movement has worked on issues of gender discrimination in diverse spheres like the workplace and within the family.

(ii) Nature of new social movement and 'taken up of old issues of economic inequality: At the same time, these new social movements are not just about 'old' issues of economic inequality. Nor are they organised along class lines alone. Identity politics, cultural anxieties and aspirations are essential elements in creating social movements and occur in ways that are difficult to trace to class-based inequality. Often, these social movements unite participants across class boundaries. For instance, the women's movement includes urban, middle-class feminists as well as poor peasant women. The regional movements for separate statehood bring together different groups of people who do not share homogeneous class identities. In a social movement, questions of social inequality can occur alongside other, equally important, issue.

(i) Peasants' Movements: Peasants movements or agrarian struggles have taken place from pre-colonial days. The movements in the period between 1858 and 1914 tended to remain localised, disjointed and confined to particular grievances. Well-known are the Bengal revolt of 1859-62 against the indigo plantation system and the 'Deccan riots' of 1857 against moneylenders. Some of these issues continued into the following period, and under the ledership of Mahatma Gandhi became partially linked to the Independence Movement. For instance, the Bardoli Satyagraha (1928, Surat District) a 'non-tax' campaign as part of the nationwide non-cooperative movement, a campaign of refusal to pay land revenue and the Champaran Satyagraha (1917-18) directed against indigo plantations. In the 1920s, protest movements against the forest policies of the British government and local rulers arose in certain regions.

Between 1920 and 1940 peasant organisations arose. The first organisation to be founded was the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (1929) and in 1936 the All India Kisan Sabha. The peasants organised by the Sabhas demanded freedom from economic exploitation for peasants, workers and all other exploited classes. At the time of Independence, we had the two most classical cases of peasant movements, namely the Tebhaga movement (1946-47) and the Telangana Movement (1946-51). The first was a struggle of sharecroppers in Bengal in North Bihar for two thirds share of their produce instead of the customary half. It had the support of the Kisan Sabha and the Communist Party of India (CPI). The second, directed against the feudal conditions in the princely state of Hyderabad and was led by the CPI.

(ii) New Farmers Movement: Certain issues which had dominated colonial times changed after independence. For land reforms, zamindari abolition, declining importance of land revenue and public credit system beganto alter rural areas. The period after 1947 was characterised by two major sociaI movevements. The NaxaIite struggle and the ‘new farmer’s movements. The Naxalite movement started from the region of Naxalbari (1967) in Bengal.

The so called ‘new farmer’s movements began in the 1970s in Punjab and Tamil Nadu. These movements were regionally organised we non-party and involved farmers rather than peasants. (farmers are said to be market involved as both commodity producers and purchasers). The basic ideology of the movement was strongly anit-state and anti-urban. The focus of demand were ‘price and related issues' (for example price procurement, remunerative prices, prices for agricultural inputs, taxation, non-repayment of loans). Novel methods of agitation were used; blocking of roads and railways, refusing politicians and bureaucrats entry to villages, and so on. It has been argued that the farmers' movements have broadened their agenda and ideology and include environment and women's issues. Therefore, they can be seen as a part of the world wide ‘new social movements'.

Introduction: Different tribal groups spread across the country may share common issues. But the distinctions between them are equally significant. Many of the tribal movements have been largely located in the so called ‘tribal belt’ in middle India, such as the Santhals, Hos, Oraons, Mundas in Chota Nagpur and the Santhal Parganas. The region constitutes the main part of what has come to be called Jharkhand.

Tribal Movement in Jharkhand:

(i) Jharkhand is one of the newly-formed states of India, carved out of south Bihar in the year 2000. Behind the formation of this state lies more than a century of resistance. The social movement for Jharkhand had a charismatic leader as Birsa Munda, an Adivasi who led a major uprising against the British after his death.

(ii) Birsa became an important icon of the movement. Stories and songs about him can be found all over Jharkhand. The memory of Birsa's struggle was also kept alive by writing. Christian missionaries working in south Bihar were responsible for spreading literacy in the area. Literate Adivasis began to research and write about their history and myths. They documented and disseminated information about tribal customs and cultural practices. This helped create a unified ethnic consciousness and a shared identity as Jharkhandis.

(iii) Main issues taken by Jharkhand Tribal leaders:

The issues against which the leaders of the movement in Jharkhand agitated were:

• acquisition of land for large irrigation projects and firing ranges;

• survey and settlement operations, which were held up, camps closed down, etc;

• collection of loans, rent and cooperative dues, which were resisted;

• nationalisation of forest produce which they boycotted.

Result and achievement of Jharkhand tribal movement:

(a) Literate Adivasis were also in a position to get government jobs so that, over time, a middle-class Adivasi intellectual leadership emerged that formulated the demand for a separate state and lobbied for it in India and abroad.

(b) Within south Bihar, Adivasis shared a common hatred of dirkus - migrant traders and money-lenders who had settled in the area and grabbed its wealth, impoverishing the original residents.

(c) Most of the benefits from the mining and industrial projects in this mineral-rich region had gone to dikus even as Adivasi lands had been alienated.

(d) Adivasi experiences of marginalisation and their sense of injustice were mobilised to create a shared Jharkhandi identity and inspire collective action that eventually led to the formation of a separate state.

Tribal Movement in North-East India:

(a) The process of state formation initiated by the India government following the attainment of independence generated disquieting trends in all the major hill districts in the region. Conscious of their distinct identity and traditional autonomy the tribes were unsure of being incorporated within the administrative machinery of Assam.

(b) One of the key issues that bind tribal movements from different parts of the country is the alienation of tribals from forest lands. In this sense ecological issues are central to tribal movements. Just as cultural issues of identity and economic issues such as inequality are. This brings us back of the question about the blurring of old and new social movements

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Women's Movement:

(i) The 19th century social reform movements raised various issues women concerning such as sati, infanticide, illiteracy among women bad treatment and social position of windows, polygamy, Pardah system early marriage among the girl gender inequality due to Hindu laws of inheritence, Dowry system ill-treatment with the female child, degrading system of Devdasis.

(ii) The early 20th century saw the growth of women's organisations at a national and local level. The Women's India Association (WIA) (1917) All India Women's Conference (AIWC) (1926), National Council for Women in India (NCWI) (1925) are ready names that we can mention. While many of them began with a limited focus, their scope extended over time. For instance, the AIWC began with the idea that ‘women’s welfare‘ and ‘politics’ were mutually exclusive.

(iii) It can be argued that during the years of first-half of the Twentieth Century most of the activities taken by different women organisation and association did not constitute a social movement. It can be argued otherwise too. Let us recall some of the features that characterise social movements. It did have organisations, ideology, leadership, a shared understanding and the aim of bringing about changes on a public issue. What they succeeded together was to create an atmosphere where the women's question could not be ignored.

(iv) Participation of women in agrarian struggle and revolts: It is often assumed that only middle class educated women are involved in social movements. Part of the struggle has been to remember the forgotten history of women's participation. Women participated along with men in struggles and revolts originating in tribal and rural areas in the colonial period. The Tebbaga movement in Bengal, the Telangana arms, struggle from the erstwhile Nizam's rule and the Warli tribal’s revolt against bondage in Maharashtra are some examples.

(v) Women's movement during Post Independence period:

(a) An issue that is often raised is that if there was an active women's movement before 1947, whatever happened afterwards. One explanation has been that many of the women activists who were also involved in the nationalist movement got involved in the nation building task. Others cite the trauma of Partition as responsible for the lull.

(b) In the mid-1970s there was a renewal of the women's movement in India. Some call it the second phase of the Indian women's movement. While many of the concerns remained the same. There were changes both in terms of organisational strategy as well as ideologies.

(c) There was the growth of what is termed as the autonomous women's movements. The term ‘autonomy’ referred to the fact that they were ‘autonomous’ or independent from political parties as distinct from those women's organisations that had links with political parties. It was felt that political parties tended to marginalise issues of women.

(vi) New issues concerning women such as violence against women, land right, sexual harassment and dowry: Apart from organisational changes, there were new issues that were focussed upon. For instance, violence against women. Over the years there have been numerous compaigns that have been taken up. You may have noticed that application for school forms have both father's and mother's names. This was not always true. Likewise important legal changes have taken place thanks to the campaign by the women's movement. Issues of land rights, employment have been fought alongside rights against sexual harassment and dowry.

(vii) Gender inequality and women reformation: There has also been greater recognition that both men and women are constrained by the dominant gender identities. For instance men in patriarchal societies feel they must be strong and successful. It is not, manly, to express oneself emotionally. A gender-just society would allow both men and women to be free. This of course rests on the idea that for true freedom to grow and develop injustices of all kinds have to end.

Imagination is a situation far away from reality. I have been asked to imagine a society where there has been no social movement. I imagine such society of the following kind of set-up.

(i) I imagine a very progressive society. People all living in a very peaceful, cooperative and harmonious social atmosphere. People are having a family of six-seven persons in all. Grandfather, Grandmother, a couple and their two or three children in a house. This family is not having any domestic help or servant. All members accept dignity of labour and like to do their own work themselves. There is a self-discipline. Elders like that their youngers and youngsters should regard their elders and serve them whenever they feel to provide help or co-operation to eldery members of the family.

(ii) The family has three sleeping room and one common room. In common room they are having a TV, Radio, Dining Table, Sofa and Central Table alongwith book Almirah.

(iii) There is an MTNL telephone. All members of the family take there meal together at least one time in a day. Grandmother and grandfather live at home both are government servants, daughter lines at home, children go to school for study and the father of the children goes to market. He is a clock merchants.

(iv) This house is situated at a housing society. Generally lower and upper middle class people living in this society. There are nearly 150 houses in this group housing society. There is a temple and a gurudwara on east and west corner of the area of the housing society. Most of the people are religious minded. There is a common library also. Every month there is a common meeting in the society. People of different caste, classes and communities live together. If there is any dispute or difference of opinion among members of the society. Some of the people sit together in community hall of the society and they decide. This society is very old. Most of the families have been living since last 55 years here. They did not require any social movement of regligious/social-economic or cultural type. These people believe in democracy, liberalison, liberty, equality, communal harmony, gender equality, patriotism, education for all and to help each other at the time of suffering or adverse situation.

(v) I have described such type of society to give a reasonably model type of society which is needed by our country. We should do our work, we should love our country, our neighbour, our religion but did not hole religion of other people or fast and ritual of other people. We should participate in most of the festival and national festivals together with good feelings and gesture.

Environmental movement generally contain economic and identity issues: For example, in modern period the greatest stress is being given on socio-economic and cultural development.

For economic development for many years there has a great deal of concern about the unchecked use of natural resources (water, forest, minerals etc.) and model of development that create new leaders and further demand of greater exploitation of already, depleted natural resources.

It is not necessary that every development project or scheme equally beneficial for every section of society. For example, construction of big dams or multipurpose project displace people of several villages from there homes and snatch sources of livelihood from them.

Sometimes big industries are setup in a region. Such industry displace agriculturist from their homes and livelihood. Now-a-days we are reading newspaper and see TV and listening news on TV regarding SEZ special economic zones. The impact of industrial pollution is yet another story. Here we take just one example of an ecological movement to examine the many issues that are interlinked in an ecological movement.

Example: The Chipko movement is a good example of environmental or ecological movement. According to Ramachandra Guha in his book Unquiet Woods, villagers rallied together to save the oak and rhododendron forests near their villages. When government forest contractors came to cut down the trees, villagers including large number of women, stepped forward to hug the trees to prevent their being felled. At stake was the question of villagers’ susbsistence. All of them relied on the forest to get firewood, fodder and other daily necessities. This conflict placed the livelihood needs of poor villagers against the government's desire to generate revenues from selling timber.

Economic issues: The economy of subsistence was pitted against the economy of profit. Along with this issue of social inequality (villagers versus a government that represented commercial, capitalist interests), the Chipko Movement also raised the issue of ecological sustainability. Cutting down natural forests was a form of environmental destruction that had resulted in devastating floods and landslides in the region. For the villagers, these ‘red’ and ‘green’ issues were inter-linked. While their survival depended on the survival of the forest, they also valued the forest for its own sake as a form of ecological wealth that benefits all. In addition, the Chipko Movement also expressed the resentment of hill villagers against a distant government headquartered in the plains that seemed indifferent and hostile to their concerns. So concerns about economy, ecology and political representation underlay the Chipko Movement.

Identical issues: In our current information age, soical movements around the globe are able to join together in huge regional and international networks comprising non-governmental organisations, religious and humanitarian groups, human rights association, consumer protection advocates, environomental activists and others who campaign in the public interest...the enormous protests against the World Trade Organisation that took place in Seattle, for example, were organised in part through internet-based network.

(i) Introduction: It is a fact that in the historical context new social movement but from the different old social movement. Once there was a historical period when nationalist movements were overthrowing colonial powers. And working class movements in the capitalist west were wresting better wages, better living conditions, social security, free schooling and health security from the state. That was also a period when socialist movements were establishing new kinds of states and societies. The old social movements clearly saw reorganisation of power relations as a central goal.

(ii) Old movement functioned within the frame of political parties: The old social movements functioned within the frame of political parties. The Indian National Congress led the Indian National Movement. The Communist Party of China led the Chinese Revolution. Today some believe that ‘old’ class-based political action led by trade unions and workers' parties is on the decline. Others argued that in the affluent West with its welfare state, issues of class-based exploitation and inequality were no longer central concerns. So the ‘new’ social movements were not about changing the distribution of power in society but about quality-of-life issues such as having a clean environment.

(iii) Main or Central role of political organisation in old movements: In the old social movements, the role of political parties was central, Politican scientist Rajni Kothari attributes the surge of social movements in India in the 1970s to people's growing dissatisfaction with parliamentary democracy. Kothari argues that the institutions of the state have been captured by elites. Due to this, electoral representation by political parties is no longer an effective way for the poor to get their voices heared.

(iv) Joining of people to known political organisation or groups to carry on social movement: People left out by the formal political system join social movements or non-party political formations in order to put pressure on the state from outside. Today, the broader term of civil society is used to refer to both old social movements represented by political parties and trade unions. And to new non-governmental organisations, women's groups, environmental groups and tribal activists.

(v) New movements are international in scope: lt is a hard fact that globalisation has been re-shaping peoples' lives in industry and agriculture, culture and media. Often firms are transnational. Often legal arrangements that are binding are international such as the regulations of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Environmental and health risks, fears of nuclear warfare are global in nature. Not surprisingly therefore many of the new social movements are international in scope. What is significant, however, is that the old and new movements are working together in new alliances such as the World Social Forum that have been raising awareness about the hazards of globalisation.

I. Meaning of Social Movements:

1. Social movements are of great sociological interest because they are a major source of social change.

2. A social movement is sustained collective effort that focuses on some aspect of social change.

3. Defining social movement well-known sociologist M.S.A Rao says that a social movement essentially involves sustained collective mobilisation through either informal or formal organisation and is generally oriented towards bringing about change in the existing system of relationship. Rao considers ideology as an important component of a social movement.

II. The Features of Social Movement.

Following are the main features of social movements:

(a) Social movement is a collective mobilisation as against occasional individual efforts. Groups and collectivism launch movement, but it is different from crowd.

(b) A crowd has no group identity and no movement is possible without a group identity.

(c) A crowd is neither organised nor does it possess permanancy.

(d) Social movements are organised collective endeavours. Thus the first significant feature of a social movement is its collective nature.

III. Organisational Structure and Leadership:

(b) When a persuasive leader, called charismatic in sociological literature, leads a movement, support of the masses tends to be spontaneous.

(c) We can give a good example from our own country’s freedom movement. M.K. Gandhi was a spontaneous leader.

(d) Decentralised democratic leadership may also be a popular strategy. In such an organisational structure elaborate system of local and regional level units and branches are established to strong them the organisation. These units (at different levels) are required to be formed for mobilising the people, communicating messages and implementing action programmes.

(e) While at different levels, organisations are defined on the basis of movements aims and objectives, they also express the collective will of the people.

IV. Development of ideological frame and identity:

(a) Social movement cannot keep itself alive unless it develops its ideological frame and identity. An ideology of a social movement relies on sets of ideas that explain and justify its objectives and methods.

(b) Ideological framework articulates aspirations and defines levels of expectations of the people.

(c) Moreover, ideology provides legitimacy to the action programmes of a movement.

(d) The ideological underpinnings gives the movement acceptability and recognition among people at large.

(e) Ideology also assists to generate involvement to the cause and becomes a rallying print to assemble people of consolidate the gains of collective mobilisation.

(f) We should not forget that several times every social or other movement may work under any powerful and already established ideology, Gandhiasm and Marxism for example, have influenced many social and political movements in our country.

V. Change-oriented:

(a) Lastly, change-orientation is another important aspect of social movement. Every movement is directed towards some changes according to its aims and objectives.

(b) The relationship between social movements and soical change is well-established.

(c) The nature and extent of change intended may not be identical in all movements. While some movements strive for partial change, others may attempt to bring about large scale transformation of the social structure.

(d) Likewise, while some movements are change promoting, others are change resisting.

The origin and sources of socical movements: There are three popular explanations about the origin and sources of social movements. They are:

1. Relative Deprivation Theory,

2. Structural Strain Theory and

3. Revitalisation Theory.

The above mentioned theories tell us about the genesis of a movement. A brief explanation of all these three theories is given below:

1. Relative Deprivation Theory.

(a) Deprivation refers to a condition in which people lack what they require.

(b) A condition of relative deprivation, however, is based on a perceived difference between what people have in comparison with other. In this sense, relative deprivation exists when individuals or groups feel that they have received less than what they should have in view of their capabilities.

(c) In other words, relative deprivation is a discrepancy between legitimate expectations and actual achievements.

(d) The discrepancy may be in terms of economic conditions, social status or political power.

(e) We can give an example to explain the Relative Deprivation Theory. For instance, an educated unemployed youth may feel deprived compared to a similarly educated but employed person. Thus, a feeling of relative deprivation generates dissatisfaction against the prevailing conditions and gives rise to a movement.

2. Structural Strain Theory:

(a) This theory argues that contradiction, conflict and strain in a society produce anxiety and uncertainly.

(b) Structural strain occurs at the level of norms, values and facilities. This strain provide s a motivation for collective behaviour akin to movement.

(c) Although Neil Smelser was one of the first to theories that social movements incorporate sociological factors, he has been criticised for placing too much emphasis on psychological motivation.

3. Revitalisation Theory:

(a) This theory was put first of all by A.F.C. Wallace. He postulated that social movements, develop out of a deliberate, organised and conscious effort on the part of members of a society to construct a more satisfying culture for themselves.

(b) This explanation of genesis of social movement substantially departs from the already (or above) mentioned both explanations (i.e., 1. Relative Deprivation Theory and 2. Structural Strain Theory). Both the relative deprivation and the strain theories are based on negative conditions. They argue that social movements emerge because people experience deprivation and discrimination.

(c) The Revitalisation Theory's approach suggests that social movements offer a positive programme of action to revitalise the system.

(d) According to this theory, social movements not only express dissatisfaction and dissent against the existing condition but also provide alternatives for resurgence of the system.

Classification of social movements:

(a) Social movements have been classified on the basis of numerous criteria.

1. Nature of change intended, 2. organisational mode and strategy, 3. nature of demands and 4. groups and collectivities involved, are four major criteria used for this purpose (i.e., the classification of social movement).

(b) Rao’s classification: Among the Indian sociologists M.S.A. Rao’s classification of movements is widely accepted. Rao classifies social movements into three types:

(1) Reformist Movements, (2) Transfor-matory Movements, and (3) Revolutionary Movement.

1. Reformist Movements: Reformist movements may be identified with partial changes in the value system and consequential changes in the quality of relationship.

2. Transformatory Movement: This type of movement aims at middle level structural changes in the traditional distribution of power.

3. Revolutionary Movements: Revolutionary Social Movements lead to radical changes in the totality of social and cultural systems.

(c) Classification done by Parth N. Mukherji:

(i) Parth N. Mukherji has put a classification of social movements based on nature and extent of changes that these movements intend to bring about in social systems.

(ii) Based on the criteria of change, he classifies three types of social movements.

1. Social movement,

2. Revolutionary movement, and

3. Quasi-movement.

1. Social Movement: Any collective mobilisation for action directed explicity towards an alteration or transformation of the structure of a system can be properly, understood as a social movement.

2. Revolutionary Movement: When the collective mobilisation aims at affecting widerange of and far-reaching changes in the major institutional systems comprising the entire society, we can rightly term it as a revolutionary movement.

3. Quasi-Movement: Collective mobilisation, aimed at social changes or within a particular social system, is a quasi-movement.

(d) Classification suggested by T. K. Oommen:

(i) The typology of T. K. Oommen is based on the process of movement crystallisation, the life cycle and the phases of social movements. For him the movements are :

1. Charismatic, 2. Ideological and 3. Organisational.

(ii) T. K. Oommen adopts another criteria for classification of social movements. He refers to this classification of movements on the basis of:

1. locality, 2. language, 3. issues, 4. social categories and 5. sects.

Role of tribal movements in maintaining their cultural and social identity.

1. Tribal People: Generally the term tribe is used for those people who are referred to as the Scheduled Tribes (STs) in our country. They are also known (popularly) as Adivasi or aboriginal.

2. Tribal communities are found throughout the country but their population is in good number in the north-eastern region.

3. In fact, in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland tribals are in a majority. Similarly, the states of Chittisgarh and Jharkhand have sizeable tribal population.

4. As far as total population of STs is concerned, it constitutes 8.08 per cent of the total population of the country.

5. Different tribal communities of India have their distinct culture, language, social structure, values etc. These communities have maintained their cultural and social identities.

6. Movements taking place among those communities are included under tribal movements. These movements have been directed towards numerous issues.

(a) While some of them have had agrarian content, (b) others addressed cultural, and (c) some of them political questions.

7. Historically speaking, tribal movements of our country have a rich tradition. The nature of struggles and issues involved in these movements differed considerably and therefore they have been sometimes referred to as ‘tribal uprising’, ‘tribal insurrection’ or ‘tribal revolts'.

8. (a) V. Raghvaiah in his book Tribal Revolts lists seventy tribals between 1778 and 1971.

(b) A survey of tribal movements undertaken by Anthropological Survey of India reported thirty-six ongoing tribal movements in India in 1976.

9. In nineteenth-century many uprisings and revolts took place in the tribal belts of eastern India as well as in central India.

(a) The Kol and (b) Bhumij revolts of 1831-33, (c) the Santhal uprising of 1855-56, and (d) the Birsa Munda movements during 1874-1901 are some of the major tribal insurrections reported by different historian.

10. Ethnic identity and economy tribals faced serious challenges due to the imposition of new revenue law by the British government. Imposition of enhanced rents, heavy interests charged by money lenders and the atrocities of British and other officials forced the tribals to become tenants on their own lands. All these factors produced a series of tribal revolts.

11. It is very significant to refer here that unrest and tension among the tribals did not subside even after Independence of the country. Several new movements have emerged during the last six decades (1947-2004). Most of these movements are directed against issues of land alienation, forced labour, minimum wages and exploitation by non-tribal landlords.

12. As time passed, the tener of tribal movements changed considerably and acquired political character.

13. The tribal movements of last five to six decades have been differently described by the sociologists. These are called as (i) the tribal political movements, (ii) ethnic movements, (iii) sub-national movements, and (iv) solidarity movements.

14. The Jharkhand Movement of Chhotanagpur was spearheaded by the tribals demanding a separate state to protect them from diku (outsiders).

The demand has finally been met and a separate state called Jharkhand was created in the year 2000 AD.

15. The Naga Movement for a separate State outside the Indian Union is the oldest of all tribal movements in India. It assumed a militant character from the very beginning and continues till date.

Conclusion : In short, we can say that it is quite clear from record and history that the tribal movements before and after the freedom have not only been widespread but also they have been diversified in terms of issues, organisation and leadership.

There is a strong tendency towards consolidating tribal the ethnic identities. This trend reflects the dynamism of these tribal communities.

Nature and features of peasant movements in India:

1. Agrarian Country or Soceity: India is essentially an agrarian country. Our agrarian system is very complex. Patterns of landownership, tenancy, use and control of land, all reflect the complex nature of India's agrarian structure. The complexity of agrarian structure is also manifested in the agrarian class structure which has existed since long in rural areas. The diversity of land systems and agrarian relations has produced an elaborate structure of agrarian classes.

2. Daniel Thorner has identified these major agrarian classes in our country. They are

(a) Maliks, (b) Kisans, (c) Mazdoors.

(a) Maliks: Big landlords and rich landowners are included under the category of Maliks.

(b) Kisans: They are inferior to Maliks comprising self cultivating owners of land. They are small landowners and tenants.

(c) Mazdoors: They earn their livelihood from working on others lands. This category includes poor tenants, share croppers and landless labourers.

Comment: The above described three classes of the people directly related with agrarian structure broadly reflects the Indian reality before our eyes.

3. There is a need to be recognised that the agrarian hierarchy, as indicated in above paragraphs, corresponds with the caste hierarchy which we find in different parts of India. The rich landowners and moneylenders mainly belong to the upper castes. The middle and small peasants come from the traditional peasants castes. The landless labourers belong primarily to the lower castes. Such a position only indicates a pattern. It does not show to the exact situation in the rural areas of our country.

4. D. N. Dhanagare’s study of peasant movements in our country helps us to know the nature of these movements. According to Dhanagare, the term ‘peasant movement’ refers to all types of collective attempts of different strata of the peasantry either to change the system which they realise was exploitative, or to seek redress for particular grievances without necessarily aiming at overthrowing the system. In brief, we can say that peasant movements include all types of movements -(a) violent and non-violent, (b) organised and sporadic.

5. Peasant movements in 19th century India (a) It is a fact, that our country has very long history of peasant movements. Therefore, the nineteenth century India is regarded a treasure house of materials on peasant heroism.

(b) The most militant peasant movement of nineteenth century was the Indigo Revolt of 1859-60 in Bengal.

(c) In 1872-73 another violent peasant uprising took place in Pabna and Bogra also in Bengal.

Comment: The above mentioned peasant struggles were directed against Zamindars who were the symbols of exploitation and atrocities.

(d) The landowning and money lending classes had regarded their position not only in Zamindari (जमींदारी) areas of the country but also in Raiyatwari (रैयतवारी) areas of the country but also in Raiyatwari (रैयतवारी) and Mahalwari (महालवारी) areas. The small landholders, tenants and sharecroppers were the victims of the moneylenders tyranny. Accordingly, the peasants revolted against the oppression of the powerful agrarian classes. One of such revolts in Raiyatwari area in known as the Deccan Riots of 1875. These revolt took place in western Maharashtra.

(e) A series of Maplah (मापला) uprisings in Malabar (मालाबार) region of southern India also took place throughout the nineteeth century. They were expressions of long-standing agrarian discontent among the poor Maplah peasantry.

(f) It is very vital to note that peasants grievances also became a component of the India's freedom struggle during the early twentieth century.

(i) The Champaran Movement in 1917, (ii) the Kheda Satyagraha of 1918 and (iii) the Bardoli Satyagrah of 1928 were the main non-violent anti-British struggles. Since Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was involved in these Satyagrahas (सत्याग्रह) they are popularly known as Gandhian agrarian movements. Most of these movements took up relatively minor agrarian issues but they got success in arousing political awarness among the masses of India, especially from the rural regions of the country.

Comment: The most import aspect of Gandhi era peasant movements was their simultaneous involvement in the nation-wide struggle for freedom.

(g) Peasant Movements from 1920-1946. Peasants in other parts of India (apart from Gujarat, Maharashtra and Bihar) were not inactive. They were equally restive and raised their grievances, Between 1920 and 1926 several peasant organisations and movements emerged in Bihar and Bengal which protested against the miserable condition of the middle and poor peasants.

(h) Just before Independence of our country, it was the Tebhaga struggle of 1946-47 in Bengal, which was the most effective and widespread of all peasant movements. It was a struggle of share croppers (bargadars) to retain two-third share of the produce for themselves.

The movement was the outcome of the politicisation of the peasantry which was made possible because of the efforts of CPI (i.e., the Communist Party of India) and the Kishan Sabha.

(i) Telengana peasant struggle, which occurred on the eve of India's Independence, was another important struggle of the poor peasants. It developed in the Nizam-ruled Hyderabad State in 1946 and lasted for five years till it was called off in October, 1951.

Conclusion: It is a fact that peasant movements have not have always been successful in achieving their immediate goals but they created the climate which produced post-independence agrarian reforms.

The role of women in bringing about social changes and awareness.

1. During days of freedom struggle due to efforts of M. K. Gandhi a large number of women came out of their homes and joined the freedom struggle.

2. Women who joined the Indian national movement recognised the importance of self-reliance, swadeshi and women's education. Such a political consciousness among women expanded the space available to women in public sphere.

3. During the period of the Indian freedom struggle several women's organisations emerged which paved their way for increasing role of women in socio-political activities. Prominent among these organisations were All

India Women's Association and the Indian Women's Association. These organisations had branches in different parts of India. Their activities centred mainly on issues like women's education, improvements in health and sanitation, right to suffrage for women and the maternity benefits for women workers.

4. In this manner, these organisations got success in initiating a discourage on gender equality and women's rights.

5. The nationalist phase of women's movement ended after independence with an assurance to remove all forms of gender inequalities.

6. The task of social reconstruction undertaken subsequently further confirmed the goal. Consequently, the women's movements were subdued for almost two decades till 1970s. However, during this period women participated large numbers in several local level struggles in different parts of the country.

7. The role and participation of women in the Shahada movement in Maharashtra, and anit-price rise movements in Gujarat and Maharashtra, and the Bihar movement led by Jaya Prakash Narayan are still fresh in our memory. The twin objectives of struggle and development were adopted by organisation like SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Assoication) who fought against all forms of injustice.

8. Sociologists of women's movements in our country show the phase of autonomous women's movement began after 1970s. It coincided with the publication of the Status of Women Report. The report-highlighted the gender disparities in the sex ratios, life expectancy, literacy and opportunities.

9. The government initiated steps to implement special programmes for women. Simultaneously, several autonomous women's groups were formed as the local and regional levels to fight against the prevalent patriarchal culture and against division of labour based on gender.

10. Apart from these basic issues, the autonomous women's organisations took-up several immediate issue such as violence against women dowry death, rape and domestic violence.

11. The organised protest marches and developed support services like fighting legal battles on behalf of the oppressed women.

Conclusion: (a) It is significant to note that in course of autonomous women's movements in India, a serious debate cropped up about the idea of feminism.

(b) Feminism is a complex set of political ideologies used by the women's movement to advance the cause of women's equality.

(c) Feminism is also defined as a variety of interrelated frameworks used to observe and analyse the ways in which the social reality of gender inequality is constructed and enforced.

(d) Given this perspective of feminsim, some activitists questioned the applicability of the western nation of feminism to the India's reality. They argued that the nature of male dominance in India is different from that in western society.

(e) Therefore, the demands and resistance of women against males are also different. Madhu Kishwar, activist and the editor of Manushi, has stressed the need to look into our traditions in this respect. She argues that we should try to separate the devastating aspects from the points of strength within the cultural traditions and start using the strength to transform the traditions. Thus, feminism in the Indian context is not only taken as an issue of theoretical debate for analysis but an approach to bring about social change.

Conclusion: In brief, we can say that women's movements in India have played an important role in bringing and driving the wome’s issues to the national agenda.

The Consequences of Dalit Movement:

1. We use the term dalit (the oppressed or the SCs) movements for all types of movements which are primarily based on issues concerning dalits. These include anti-caste movements, non-Brahman movements and social movements against untouchability led by M. K. Gandhi.

2. Dalit movements emerged during the pre-independence period. These movements have been examined keeping them under broader categories-(a) non-Brahman movements and (b) Dalit movements. While the anti-caste non-Brahman movements were strong in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, Dalit movements were spread all over the country.

(i) The Act-Dharam movements in Punjab,

(ii) The Satnami movement in Uttar Pradesh,

(iii) Narayana Guru’s movement in Kerala and

(iv) Adi-Dravidas movements in Tamil Nadu have been some of the main Dalit Movements of our country.

3. The large anti-caste movements were led by prominent figures like Jotiba Phule, Babasaheb Ambedkar and E. V. Ramaswami Periyar. They all attacked the system of exploitation at all levels.

4. Nevertheless, the dalit movement is necessarily linked with the name of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. He was a historical leader and the founder of the ideology. In beginning the dalit movement was confined to Maharashtra, but during 1930s and 1940s it spread to different parts of the country.

5. Although the organisations, such as the Scheduled Caste-Federation and its successor, the Republican Party, formed by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, never attained all-India status, but their ideas has an impact on various local level dalit movements in different parts of the country.

6. The growth and spread of all dalit movements reflect the increasing self-consciousness of the group.

7. Through these movements dalits have emerged as a distinct political group. They are no longer political dependent upon the upper castes. Eventually, they have made an impact on the structure of power of India.

8. Another important trend in the dalit movement is mainfested in the emergence of the Dalit Panther Movement which was launched by dalits of Maharashtra in the early 1970s. It was initially confined to the urban areas of Maharashtra but later on spread to several other states of the country.

9. The Dalit Panthers denounce the dominant culture and attempt to articulate an alternative cultural identity of the oppressed classes.

10. To propogate their ideas they have been publishing poems, stories and plays, which are now popularly known as dalit literature and are used to challenge the intellectual tradition of the upper caste Hindus.

11. The most important result of dalit movement has been the conslidation of dalit identity. The pressure created by the mobilisation of the dalits has led to amelioration of their social condition.

12. If we compare the present conditions of the dalits with the conditions a decade ago, we definitely find that the social and economic position has relatively improved a lot.

13. The emancipation of dalits is essentially linked with their freedom from the bondage to the existing economic systems. As the economic system is still monopolised by the upper castes, their position in the caste as well as class system continues to be at the lower end.

Tips: -

V. Imp.

A.

Five or six days

B.

A long struggle by workers

A.

Eight hours

A.

1839

A.

1850s and 1860s

B.

Raja Ram mohan Roy

A.

Dharma Sabha

D.

All above mentioned ways

A.

1789

A.

Monarchy

A.

Great social upheaval

B.

Sociologist

A.

Historian

D.

Mancur Olson

A.

Narayana Guru

B.

Russia

A.

An act of defiance against legitimate authority

C.

Former French colony

A.

Martin Luther King

C.

Above all mentioned

A.

The eclogical movement

A.

Ramachandra Guha

A.

Chamoli district

A.

The indigo plantation system

B.

Moneylenders

Main concerns of social reformers of 19th century:-

• Removal of the prevailing social evils
• Education for the deprived, backward, weaker sections.
• Widow remarriage
• Child Marriage
• Against Caste and Gender discrimination
• Religious discrimination

Trade union play an important role for the welfare of workers:

1. In some cases, trade unions have been striving to overcome problems such as regionalism and casteism
2. Trade unions with its united strength, ensure fair wages and benefits such as medical facility, pensions, paid sick leave and paid vacations for them.
3. Trade unions provide them a powerful and collective voice to communicate with management about their dissatisfaction and frustration. It can also help to break strikes/lockouts.
4. Trade unions provide a forum to bring workers together not only to promote common job-related interests but also to organise social events.
5. Trade unions help in resolving medical and accident claims/issues.

Old movement functioned within the frame of political parties: The old social movements functioned within the frame of political parties. The Indian National Congress led the Indian National Movement. The Communist Party of China led the Chinese Revolution. Today some believe that ‘old’ class-based political action led by trade unions and workers' parties is on the decline. Others argued that in the affluent West with its welfare state, issues of class-based exploitation and inequality were no longer central concerns.

The ‘new’ social movements were not about changing the distribution of power in society but about quality-of-life issues such as having a clean environment.

Main or Central role of the political organisation in old movements: In the old social movements, the role of political parties was central, Politician scientist Rajni Kothari attributes the surge of social movements in India in the 1970s to people's growing dissatisfaction with parliamentary democracy. Kothari argues that the institutions of the state have been captured by elites. Due to this, electoral representation by political parties is no longer an effective way for the poor to get their voices heard.

Joining of people to known political organisation or groups to carry on social movement: People left out by the formal political system join social movements or non-party political formations in order to put pressure on the state from outside. Today, the broader term of civil society is used to refer to both old social movements represented by political parties and trade unions. And to new non-governmental organisations, women's groups, environmental groups and tribal activists.

New movements are international in scope: it is a hard fact that globalisation has been re-shaping peoples' lives in industry and agriculture, culture and media. Often firms are transnational. Often legal arrangements that are binding are international such as the regulations of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Environmental and health risks, fears of nuclear warfare are global in nature. Not surprisingly therefore many of the new social movements are international in scope. What is significant, however, is that the old and new movements are working together in new alliances such as the World Social Forum that has been raising awareness about the hazards of globalisation.

Difference between social change and social movements-
(i) Social change is continuous and ongoing. It indicates Sum total of countless individual and collective action gathered across time and space.
(ii) Social movements are directed towards some specific goals. It Involves long and continuous social effort and action by people.

The main features of new farmer's movements are as under:
(i)  These movements were regionally organised.
(ii) These movements were non-party.
(iii) The main ideology of these movements was strongly anti-state and anti-urban.
(iv) These movements involved farmers rather than peasants.

Following are the main issues against which the leaders of the movement in Jharkhand agitated:
(i)  Acquisition of land for larger irrigation projects and firing ranges.
(ii) Collection of loans, rent and cooperative dues, which were resisted
(iii) Nationalization of forest produce which they boycotted.
(iv) Most of the benefits from mining, industry etc went to the non-tribals.

(i) The Tebhaga Movement (1946-47).
(ii) The Telangana Movement (1946 - 51).

(i) A struggle for self-confidence and a space for self-determination.
(ii) It is a struggle for abolishment of stigmatisation that untouchability implied.

Environmental movements take place to show concern about:
(i) Maximum exploitation of the already depleting natural resources.
(ii) In the name of “development” habitat of people is forcibly changed – they are forcibly displaced.

Social Movement: Social movements are directed towards the specific goals. These movements involve long and continuous social efforts & action of the people.

Social Change: Its continuous & ongoing. It is the sum total of countless individuals & collective action gathered across time & space.

(i) The formation of the AITUC made the colonial government more cautious in dealing with labour. It attempted to grant workers some concessions in order to contain unrest.

(ii) In 1922 the government passed the fourth Factories Act which reduced the working day to 10 hours. And in 1926, the Trade Unions Act was passed, which provided for registration of trade unions and proposed some regulations.

Reformist:

Reformist social movements strive to change the existing social and political movements through gradual incremental steps.

Redemptive:

A redemptive social movement aims to bring about a change in the personal awareness and actions of its individual members. For example, persons in the Ezhava community in Kerala were led by Narayana Guru to change their social practices.

Sati, Child Marriage, Ill-treatment of widows, Dowry murders, Representation of women in popular media and the gendered consequences of unequal development, domestic violence, rape, equal wages, agricultural issues, tribal and rural issues are some of the major issues taken up by the women's movement over time.

Theory of relative deprivation:—According to this theory, social conflict arises when a social group feels that it is worse off than others. This theory emphasises the role of Psychological factors such as resentment and rage.

The logic of collective action: A person will join the social movement only when he will gain something from it. He will participate only if the risks are less than gains. It is based on the notion of the rational, utility maximising individual.

Resource mobilization theory —This theory was proposed by Mc Carthy and Zald who argued that a social movement‘s success depends on its ability to mobilize resources such as leadership, organizational capacity and communication facilities, and can use within the available political opportunity structure, it is more likely to be effective.

Reformist movement: Reformist social movements strive to change the existing social and political arrangements through gradual, incremental steps.
Revolutionary movement: Revolutionary movement attempt to radically transform social relations, often by capturing state power.

Following are the main features of a social movement:
(i) The so called ‘new farmer’s movements began in the 1970s in Punjab and Tamil Nadu. These movements were regionally oganised, were non-party, and involved farmers rather than peasants. (farmers are said to be market-involved as both commodity producers and purchasers).
(ii) The basic ideology of the movement was strongly anti-state and anti-urban. The focus of demand were ‘price and related issues’ (for example price procurement, remunerative prices, prices for agricultural inputs, taxation, non- repayment of loans).
(iii) Novel methods of agitation were used: blocking of roads and railways, refusing politicians and bureaucrats entry to villages, and so on.
(iv) It has been argued that the farmers’ movements have broadened their agenda and ideology and include environment and women’s issues. Therefore, they can be seen as a part of the worldwide ‘new social movements’.

Counter movements are the movements which sometimes arise in defence of status quo. Following are the examples of Counter Movements:
(i) When Raja Ram Mohan Roy campaigned against sati and formed the Brahmo Samaj, defenders of Sati formed Dharma Sabha.
(ii) When reformers demanded education for girls, many protested that this would be disaster for Society.
(iii) When Reformers campaigned for widow remarriage, they were socially boycotted.

The central issue behind Tebhaga Movement (1946-1947) was the struggle of peasants. It was a struggle of sharecroppers in Bengal in North Bihar for 2/3rd share of their total produce instead of the customary half.

Social change is continuous and ongoing. On the other hand, Social movements are directed towards some specific goals. It involves long and continuous social effort and action by people.

(i)  Satnami Movement of the Chamars in the Chattisgarh plains in eastern MP.
(ii) Adi Dharma Movement in Punjab, the Mahar Movement in Maharashtra. 

Theory of resource mobilization was propounded by Mc Carthy and Zald. It reveals that a social movement’s success depends on its ability to mobilise resources or means of different sorts and it is more likely to effective.

The social movement for Jharkhand had a charismatic leader in Birsa Munda, an adivasi who led a major uprising against the British. After his death, Birsa became an important icon of the movement.
The issues against which the leaders of the movement in Jharkhand agitated were:

1. Acquisition of land for large irrigation projects and firing ranges;
2. Survey and settlement operations, which were held up, camps closed down, etc.
3. Collection of loans, rent and cooperative dues, which were resisted;
4. Nationalisation of forest produce which they boycotted.

(i) Reformist social movements strive to change the existing social and political movements through gradual incremental steps.
(ii) Whereas revolutionary social movements attempt to radically transform social relations often by capturing state power.

Ecological movements were started to examine the many issues that are interlinked in an ecological movement:

1. The Chipko movement is the best example of ecological or environmental movements. It is an appropriate example of intermingled interests or ideologies. 
2. For villagers, subsistence was the biggest question at stake: The villagers relied on the forest to get firewood, fodder and other daily requirements. It was a conflict between the livelihood needs of poor villagers and the government's desire to make revenues from selling timber
3. Chipko movement also raised the issue of ecological sustainability. Cutting down natural forests was a form of environmental destruction that had resulted in devastating floods and landslides in the region. For the villagers, these ‘red’ and ‘green’ issues were inter-linked. 
4. Chipko movement also expressed the resentment of hill villagers against a distant government headquartered in the plains that seemed indifferent and hostile to their concerns. So concerns about the economy, ecology and political representation underlay the Chipko movement.

The Orthodox members of the Hindu community in bengal i.e. defenders of sati formed Dharma Sabha and petitioned the British arguing that reformers had no right to interpret holy texts and not to legislate against sati.