Social Change And Development In India Chapter 4 Change And Development In Rural Society

There is a direct correspondence between agricultural productivity and the agrarian structure in areas of assured irrigation, those with plentiful rainfall or artificial irrigation works (such as rice-growing regions in river deltas, for instance the Kaveri basin in Tamil Nadu) more labour was needed for intensive cultivation. Here the most unequal agrarian structures developed. The agrarian structure of these regions was characterised by a large proportion of landless labourers, who were often ‘bonded’ workers belonging to the lowest castes. (Kumar 1998).

Green Revolution: The fundamental (or basic) change and phenomenal increase in foodgrains (particularly in wheat and rice) production in late sixties (1960s) in India has earned the name of ‘Green Revolution’. The word ‘Green’ here refers to green fields of the countryside and ‘revolution’ indicates a substantial change.

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Tenancy reforms laid emphasis on the following three major aspects of the tenancy problem

1. regulation of rent.

2. security of tenure, and

3. right of purchase for the tenants.

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Those people who have retired from the Civil and Military services and have invested their savings in agricultural farms, are called Gentlemen Farmers.

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Middle class peasantry comprises of middle caste groups (such as Yadavs and Kurmi of Bihar and U.P., Reddy and Kamma of Andhra and Vakkaliga of Karnataka), which are lower than the upper castes but higher than the lower castes and Scheduled Castes (SCs).

Globalisation is one of the distinctive features of the contemporary world. The term is used mostly in an economic sense. Globalisation is the process of integration of world economies in condition of free markets.

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Liberalisation: The, process of liberalisation is closely related to globalisation. Liberalisation is the economic content of globalisation. It is a process under which a highly regulated economy is transformed into an outward looking economy.

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Raiyatwari System: Many districts of colonial India were administered through the zamindari system. In other areas that were under direct British rule had what was called the raiyatwari system of land settlement (raiyat means cultivato in Telugu). In this system, the ‘actual cultivators’ (who were themselves often landlords and not cultivators) rather than the zamindars were responsible for paying the tax. Because the colonial government dealt directly with the farmers or landlords, rather than through the overlords, the burden of taxation was less and cultivators had more incentive to invest in agriculture. As a result, these areas became relatively more productive and prosperous.

Farmers' Suicide from 1997 to 2006: The spate of farmers suicides that has been occurring in the different parts of the country since 1997-98 can be linked to the ‘agrarian distress’ caused by structural changes in agriculture and changes in economic and agricultural policies. These include: the changed pattern of landholdings; changing cropping patterns especially due to the shift to cash crops; liberalisation policies that have exposed Indian agriculture cropping patterns especially due to the shift to cash crops; liberalisation policies that have exposed Indian agriculture to the forces of globalisation; heavy dependence on high-cost inputs; the withdrawal of the state from agricultural extension activities to be replaced by multinational seed and fertiliser compaines; decline in state support for agriculture; and individualisation of agricultural operations. According to official statistics, there have been 8,900 suicides by farmers between 2001 and 2006 in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra.

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The main objectives behind land reforms in India - The primary objectives of land forms in free India are:

1. To remove motivational and other impediments which arise from the agrarian structure inherited from the past, and

2. To eliminate all elements of exploitation and social injustice within the agrarian system so as to ensure equality of status and opportunity to all sections of the population.

Conclusion: It is quite clear from the above mentioned two objectives that land reforms were introduced with a view to modernise agricultures and reduce inequalities in the agrarian economy.

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The objectives of land reforms after Independence: The following were the objectives of land reforms in our country after independence:

(a) the abolitions of all forms of intermediaries (Zamindars), Jagirdars, etc. between the state and the tiller of the soil.

(b) conferment of ownership rights on the cultivating tenants in the land held under their possession.

(c) imposition of ceiling on agricultural land holdings.

(d) consolidation of holdings with a view to making easier the application of modern techniques of agriculture, and

(e) rationslisation of the record of rights in land.

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Objectives of Ceiling on Landholdings:

1. The basic objective of fixation of ceiling on landholdings is to acquire land above a certain level from the present landholders for the distribution among the landless. It is primarily a redistrbutive measure based on the principle of socio-economic justice.

2. The disparity in landownership in India is a well-known fact while nearly one fourth of rural households have no land at all, there were a large number of landholders owning thousands of acres each on the eve of independence. Thus, fixation of ceiling on agricultural holdings has been used as a means to correct this imbalance.

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Meaning of Land Reforms: The term land reforms has been used both in a narrow and in a broad sense.

(a) In the narrow and generally accepted sense, land reform means redistribution of rights in land for the benefit of small farmers and landless people. This concept on land reform refers to its simple element commonly found in all land reform policies.

(b) In a broad sense, land reform is understood to mean any improvement in the institution of land system and agricultural organisation. This understanding of land reform suggests that land reform measures should go not only for redistribution of land but also undertake other measures to improve conditions of agriculture. The United Nations has accepted this notion of land reform.

(c) The UN definition says that the ideal land reform programme is an integrated programme of measures designed to eliminate obstacle to economic and social development arising out of defects in the agrarian structure.

(d) In the present context also, by land reforms we mean all those measures which have been undertaken in India by government to remove structural obstacles in the agrarian system.

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I am living at Gurgaon. It is roughly about 32 miles away from Delhi general private property dealers and housing and buildings constructions companies are engaged in construction works. The proprietor of these companies have employed many managers, engineers alongwith several labouerers who have migrated from Bihar, Jharkhand, Eastern UP and some parts of Rajasthan. Most of the labour are working on low wages because their bargaining power is very poor. They are exploited by clever contractors and managers were controlling the buildings construction works.

It is an accepted hard fact that as a livehood shortaged, men migrate out periodically in such of casued work and better wages. These migrant labour have come alongwith their women and children. They have left behind their very old parents in their respective villages.

Migrant workers have come mainly from drought areas (such as from western Rajasthan) and less productive region (such as eastern UP, very backword area of Bihar and Jharkhand). They work on brick kiln. They live in Kachha houses, tents, huts which have been prepared.

Their children suffer a lot. They are not going to school. Migration and lack of job security create very poor working and living conditions for these workers.

The group of migrant labours from Rajasthan, Eastern UP, Bihar and from Jharkhand are having four per as headman each of them belongs to migrant of different region. However, they are exploited by contractors or construction company they are forced to work for longer period and paid very less. They live in the near by area contiunously for many months. They faced the problem of air pollution also.

I am living at Adarsh Nagar. It is located near by Karnal road and just opposite to wholesale fruit market of north-west Delhi popularly known as New Fruit and Vegetable Mandi of Delhi. There are several retailers and howkers who sell fruits on handcarts.

Since 1990s liberalisation and globalisation have been accepted the doors of all countries products are open for Indian market. Our Indian fruit seller use to sale apples, produced in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Sometimes they sale orange of Nagpur. They also sale apples of Mahrashtra, UP and Madhya Pradesh. No doubt after globalisation certain whole seller are exporting India Mangoes, Orange and Apple to other countries due to these export India is earning a lot of foreign currency but there is shortage of good quality fruits and Indian consumers are forced to purchase low quality fruit on higher rate. Some of the fruits are coming from other countries. Such as apples are coming from Austrialia, grapes are coming from Pakistan and Afganistan. Due to imported fruits the price of Indian fruits come down. The Indian traders and merchants have to face the competition of multinational Companies. Every photograph has two sides-Nagative as well as positive. Globalisation cannot be exception to it. Definitely new economic policy or liberalisation, globalisation and perfect competition are showing some positive as well as negative impacts on Indian market.

Self-Study.

India lives in villages. Several films have been directed and produced in Hindi as well as regional languages from time to time. These films were after set in rural areas of the country. In Hindi we can mention the names of Mother India, Ankur, Upkar and Lagaan of such type of films. In these films rural India has been described in the problems faced by peasants and agrarian society have been presented own screen. These films had folk songs, folk dances and also India’s rural culture i.e., shown in these films.

As far as realistic aspects of the film is concerned we cannot claim that 100 per cent reality of the rural society has been shown in these film. But take example of Mother India. There is a poor farmer family. They are unable to purchase an ox. The couple themselves drive the plough. They are forced to take loan from rural money-lender. He charged high rate of interest-Rural people are forced to pay land revenue in time.

The farmers are forced to sale their agricultural produce immediately. Some of the farmers are forced to give their ancestors agricultural land to the money-lenders. Some old Zaminders try to exploit the rural women in some films. In short we can say that films are films. Producers spend crores of Rupees. The main motto of the film producers is to earn money. Even we can say that the films provide entertainment as well as they present must of the typical aspects of, knotty problems of the rural life as well as impressive song, music, dance and scenes related with rural life.

The recent film Lagaan has shown that how did the Britishers exploited the Indian farmers to pay land revenue at very high rate at that time. They were forced to obey harsh rules and regulation definitely this film gives as true picture of colonial rule.

There are several factors (economic, social etc.) that have enabled certain groups of the Indian society to tranform themselves into new wealthy, enterpreneurial dominant of the society.

(i) Ownership of the land is considered the major factor which had enabled certain groups to transfer themselves in new wealthy enterpreneur and dominant classes in the society. The caste as classes who have become rich and have purchased big pieces of land as well as latest agricultural machines, apprators, tools and using latest technology of agricultural production and costly inputs of agricultural such as good qualities of seeds, chemical, fertilisers, pesticides, tractors, trollies, commerical crops, farming and participating in the process of globalisation are called wealthy to enter-preneur and dominant people of the society.

(ii) In most region of India the major landowning groups belong to castes i.e. the Shudra or Kshatriya Varnas.

(iii) In each region, there are usually just one or two major landowning castes, who are also numerically very important. Such groups were termed by the sociologist M. N. Srinivas as dominant castes. In each region, the dominant caste is the most powerful group, economically and politically, and dominates local society.

Example: For instance some of dominant landowning groups are the Jats and Rajputs of U.P., the Vokkaligas and Lingayats in Karnataka, Kammas and Reddis in Andhra Pradesh, and Jat Sikhs in Punjab.

(iv) Middle or High rank caste: While dominant landowning groups are usually middle or high ranked castes, most of the marginal farmers and landless belong to lower caste groups. In official classification they belong to the Scheduled Castes or Tribes (SC/STs) or Other Backward Classes (OBCs). In many regions of India, the former ‘Untouchable’ or dalit castes were not allowed to own land and they provided most of the agricultural labour for the dominant landowning groups. This also created a labour force that allowed the landowners to cultivate the land intensively and get higher returns.

(v) Access to land and resources: The rough correspondence between caste and class means that typically the upper and middle castes also had the best access to land and resources, and hence to power and privilege. This had important implications for the rural economy and society. In most regions of the country, a ‘proprietary caste’ group owns most of the resources and can command labour to work for them.

(vi) The first Green Revolution: In most of the Green Revolution areas, it was primarily the medium and large farmers who was able to benefit from the new technology. This was because inputs were expensive, and small and marginal farmers could not afford to spend as much as large farmers to purchase these inputs. When agriculturists produce primarily for themselves and are unable to produce for the market, it is known as ‘subsistence agriculture’ and they are usually termed ‘peasants’. Agriculturists or farmers are those who are able to produce surplus, over and above the needs of the family, and so are linked to the market. It was the farmers who were able to produce a surplus for the market who were able to reap the most benefits from the Green Revolution and from the commercialisation of agriculture that followed.

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The Socio-Economic Consequences of Green Revolution in India.

1. Green Revolution has certainly improved the food situation in the country.

2. It has solved the problem of hunger and has given a strong base to the Indian economy for further growth.

3. It has transformed the mind set of farmers. In this regard Andre Beteille has aptly remarked. “The green revolution has indeed created a new faith in the dynamism of the Indian farmer who has shown himself to be capable not only of quickly absorbing technological innovations but also of handling social arrangements with considerable dexterity”.

4. However, the impact of the Green Revolution has not been equally favourable for all sections of a agrarian population. What we desire to point out here is that this programme has brought destabilising impact on the socio-economic condition of small and poor peasants, share croppers and landless agricultural labourers.

5. India is a poor country. The new technology and the other inputs such as improved seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, water etc. are beyond the reach of small and marginal farmers. Naturally, some regions of our country with larger landholdings like Punjab have performed better than others like Bihar and Orissa where marginal and poor farmers are in plenty and institutional credit is not easily available. This has widened the gap between the small and the rich farmers.

6. The affluent farmers are enjoying the fruits of increased profits from land but the real wage rate for agricltural labourers has been declining in most places.

7. Most of the share-croppers are now joining the rank of landless labourers because small holdings are not available for leasing out to these share-croppers.

8. Economic inequality in agrarian sector has widened resulting in increased agrarian unrest in rural areas. During the late sixties and the early seventies numerous cases of conflicts were reported especially from the Green Revolution belts (i.e., Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu).

9. The situation became serious and the ministry of Home Affairs and of the Government of India studied the causes and nature of agrarian tensions and admitted the socio-political implications of the new agricultural strategy.

10. Increased agricultural production has been visible mainly in areas like Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. In this fashion, substantial areas in the country have not been benefitted by Green Revolution.

11. A new class of capitalist farmers has emerged in the Green Revolution belts.

12. Finally, important trend suggests that the agricultural production has increased but the social index has not changed in the same proportion. For instance, the gender ratio (females are lesser in number than the males) in those areas where agricultural prosperity has been achieved is still unfavourable.

Comment: However, despite above referred some shortcomings or limitations of the Green Revolution, has undoubtedly paved the way for faster economic growth and corresponding social change.

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Features of the Middle Class Peasantry.

1. Middle class peasants generally belong to the middle caste groups. Though there is no all lndia  hierarchy of castes it is yet possible to locate certain layers that may characterised as middle class peasantry.

2. All those castes, which are below the upper castes but above the lower and SCs, constitute the category of middle castes.

3. Middle castes peasantry occupies a higher position in local caste hierarchy. No social disabilities such as untouchability and discrimination are imposed on them.

4. Most of the castes included in this category of the peasantry are traditionally peasant castes. They have been self-cultivating owners of medium size landholdings.

5. Unlike the upper castes, middle-caste peasantry has been directly involved in agricultural operations.

6. Populationwise middle class peasantry is predominant at the local level. In fact, the middle caste are like the dominant castes according to the formulation of M. N. Srinivas.

7. Most of the features of the middle-caste peasantry and the dominant castes of the society are similar but they are different in terms of their location in the caste hierarchy. While a dominant caste may belong either to the upper or the middle castes groups, it is not so in the case of a middle caste peasantry.

8. It is the middle castes, which have emerged as the dominant middle peasantry. They have derived the maximum advantage from the land reforms and the Green Revolution. At the time of abolition of intermediaries like Zamindari, the Jagidari, etc. large scale land transfer took place. The member of these castes purchased most of these lands. Secondly, when the upper caste village-dwellers began migrating to the urban areas in large numbers the members of the middle castes purchased their land.

9. New programme of agricultural development launched by government helped a lot of middle castes to improve their economic condition. Their present background provided them with an added advantage. Middle castes have, thus achieved economic affluence within a short time.

10. The growing economic prosperity of middle castes was also instrumental in extending their influence to the political domain. Here, again, their numerical strength contributed towards gaining political dominance. The phenomenal rise of castes such as the Yadav (Ahir) and the Kurmi in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, Vokkaliga in Karnataka, Kamma and Reddy in Andhra Pradesh is a pointer to this trend. In short, we can say that the middle caste peasantry (especially domiant middle caste preasants) reflects the changing reality of the Indian countrywide.

I. The Abolition of Intermediaries in India.

1. The British Government introduced three major forms of land settlements in our country. These were:

(a) Zamindari-through permanent settlement.

(b) Raiyatwari, and

(c) Mahalwari.

The sole aim of the British rulers to introduce the above all three systems of land revenue was to gain maximum revenue from land.

1. Zamindari System: Under this system the rights of property in land were given to the local rent gatherers. These persons were called Zamindars and belonged usually to the upper castes of the community.This new settlement turned the actual cultivators into tenants. This structural change in the land system created a class of intermediary between the state and the actual tillers of the soil.

2. Raiyatwari System: Under the Raiyatwari system, no intermediary owners were recognised. The actual tillers of the soil were given transferable rights in their lands. But under this system also influential Raiyats emerged as powerful land holders.

3. Mahalwari System: In the Mahalwari settlements, too a class of intermediaries had emerged.

II. Shortcomings of the pre-independent period land structures:

1. All intermediaries of the British regime had no interest in land management and

2. Morever, while the Zamindars were required to pay a fixed amount of revenue to the government, there was no limit on collections from the actual tillers.

3. Numerous illegal classes were improve upon the actual cultivators from time to time by the intermediaries.

4. The Zamindari system allowed a high level of absenteeism (Keep in mind the New Zamindars of the British rule generally lived in cities or big towns away from their lands to lead comfortable life).

5. In short, we can say that the Zamindari system was not only unjust but it was also characterised by acute economic exploitation and social oppression.

6. It was against this background that abolition of intermediary interests became the first target of land reforms during the early years of the Independence.

7. Abolition of intermediaries was under taken as an effective measure for land reforms, all over the country.

8. Essentially abolition of intermediaries sought removal of all middlemen like Zamindars, Jagirdars, Mirasdars and others. It brought cultivators into direct relationship with the State. In conferred permanent rights in land to actual cultivators.

9. Accordingly, by 1954-55 almost all states abolished intermediary tenures through several land reform legislations.

10. The abolition of intermediary tenures represents a remarkable transition to a modem agrarian structure.

I think the government has taken or should take the following measures to protect the right of landless agricultural labourers and migrant workers:

(i) Bonded labour (such as halpati system in Gujarat and Jeeta system in Karnataka) have been abolished legally.

(ii) From the 1950s to the 1970s, a sevices of land reform were passed - at the national as well as in the states-that were intended to protect the rights of landless agricultural labourers and migrant workers.

(iii) An important legislation was passed to abolish the Zamindari system. This legislation removed the layer of intermediaries that stood between the cultivators and the state. Though this legislation could remove only the top layer of the landlords in the multi-layered agrarian structure. It should be made more effective and extensive.

(iv) The tenancy abolition and regulation acts were passed for land reforms. These acts attempted either to outlaw tenancy altogether or to regulate rents to give some security to the tenants. In some states land rights were given (West Bengal and Kerala) to the tenants.

(v) Land Ceiling Acts have been passed by the Government. These laws improved an upper limit on the amount of land that can be owned by a particular family. According to these acts the state is supposed to identify and take possessions of surplus land and should redistribute it to landless families and households in other specified categories, such as SCs and STs. But in most of the states these acts proved to be toothless. Its loopholes should be removed as soon as possible.

(vi) The condition of landless labourers and migrant labourers should be improved. They should be given all rights which have been given to other labourers of organized sector or factory workers, who are working on regular basis. They should be paid the minimum wage.

(vii) Migration of workers should be discouraged by providing them work in governmental development projects. Job security should be created for all workers living conditions and working conditions should be provided proper houses, schools, hosptials, transportation facilities to all workers and migrant labours also.

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Agricultural Workers: It is a correct statement that there are direct linkage between the situation of agricultural works and their lack of upward socio-economic mobility. We can give the following facts and point in this regard.

(i) Agricultural land is the single most important resource and form of property in Indian rural society. But it is not equally distributed among people (particularly agricultural workers) living in a particular village or regions. Nor does everyone have access to land.

The ownership of land or its total area decide the position of peasant or agriculture workers upward or downward in socio-economic mobility.

(ii) Women workers are having comfortable position in India’s socio-economic setup. In most regions of our country women are usually excluding from ownership of land, because of the prevailing patrilineal kinship system and mode of inheritance. By law women are supposed to have an equal share of family property. In reality they only have limited rights and some access to land only as part of a household headed by a man.

(iii) Agricultural labourers are generally paid below the statutory minimum wage and earn very little. Their incomes are low. Their employment is insecure. Most agricultural labourers are daily-wage eamess. And do not have work for many days of the years. This is known as under employment.

Similary, tenants (Cultivators who lease their land from landowners) have lower incomes than owner-cultivators. Because they have to pay a substantial rent to the landowner-often as much as 50 to 75 per cent of the income from the crop.

(iv) Agrarian society, therefore, can be understood in terms of its class structure. But we must also remember it is also structured through the caste system. In rural areas, there is a complex relationship between caste and class. This relationship is not always straightforward. We might expect that the higher castes have more land and higher incomes. And that there is a correspondence between caste and class and higher incomes. And that there is a correspondence between caste and class as one moves down the hierarchy.

In many areas this is broadly true but not exactly. For instance, in most areas the highest caste, the Brahmins, are not major landowners, and so they fall outside the agrarian structure although they are a part of rural society.

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The Positive impacts of Globalisation:

(i) Globalisation is supported on many groups (or its positive impacts) by its-protagonists. The process of globalisation is based on the basic premise of free market. It is presumed that free markets beget competition and increase efficiency which is lacking in controlled markets.

(ii) Increased efficiency (created by free markets) improve quality of goods and services. Free market is especially helpful to the backward economies.

(iii) Under the condition of globalisation, foreign investment flows into the domestic economy which makes it strong and boisterous. These investments specially assist the countries that face the shortage of internal resources.

(iv) Under the circumstances of globalisation, free trade facilities in flow of foreign capital and goods which is expected to provide buoyancy to the stagnating economies of the Third World.

(v) Globalisation guarantees increased employment opportunities. If it is the true then definitely it will be a great blessing for those countries having very large population like China, India and so on.

(vi) More employment and more economic growth would create better quality of life for the people.

(vii) As unemployment continues to be a serious problem for most of the developing countries, globalisation is projected as a panacea to the problem.

(viii) It is assumed that economic development would be achieved through the integration of economies, which would also take care of the issues of social justice.

(ix) The innovative and rationalising mechanisms of the global economic order will make provision for safety nets for the disadvantaged groups. It is, thus, believed that liberalisation of economy, instead of causing havoc, provides new hope to the disadvantaged groups.

(x) Further more, globalisation increases co-operations and solidarity among business partners at the international level. It also ehnances co-operation at the government level.

(xi) Globalisation is helping a lot in rising a new world order based on consensus and partnership. Values of reciprocity and solidarity among nations are supposed to usher in an era of world peace and amity.

(xii) According to the United Nations study in 1999, the era of globalisation is opening many opportunities for millions of people around the world. The study suggests that it offers enormous potential to eradicate poverty in the twenty-first century.

The negative impact of globalisation:

(i) The experiences of globalisation so far, particularly in the Third World countries is not positive. It has given rise to serious risks for these countries because most of them are unable to become internationally competitive. The negative consequences of globalisation are more dominant compared to its positive consequences. Increased trade, new technologies, foreign investment and expending internet connections have no doubt, led to substantial economic growth in the world today but the gains of economic growth are not evenly distributed among different countries. There are many problems emanate from this basic weakness.

(ii) The economic process under globalisation is connected with market expansion. Open competitive markets may guarantee efficiency, but not necessarily ensure equity. Therefore, great reliance on the ‘invisible hand’ of the market is pushing the world towards unsustainable levels of inequality.

(iii) It has rightly been said that “markets are neither the first nor the last word in human development. There are many activities and goods, which are important for human development, but now-a-days they are overlooked in the rush to integrate with the global market. It is evident in areas where market frontier has moved in recent decades such as in Asia and Africa.

(iv) Globalisation has migration to western countries, old couples are feeling increase due to far aware their children. The rural people are moving to big cities, the anomalies in urban life, the collapse of the extended family and the replacment of sentiments by money as the basis of human motivation.

(v) Global capitalism is relatively free from regulations. But it enjoys the full support of powerful capitalist countries. A number of international economic institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the World Trade Organisation (WTO) reinforce the ideology of global capitalism. These countries and institutions create the political and legal conditions for the global market. Their effects of structural adjustment policies in Asia, Africa and the South Pacific imposed by the IMF and the World Bank have been no less than disastrous. They have decreased the access to education, health and decreased the access to education, health and nutrition to the underprivileged sections of the population.

Of course, it has extended these facilities mainly to the most privileged groups. Even in Europe, where the welfare state was born, there has been severe reduction in there useful facilities.

(vi) At present, for developing countries, globalisation has created more risks and challenges than the advantages and opportunities. The most direct impact has been on jobs. For example, unemployment rates doubled in Asian countries where the depression of 1997-98 was worst.

(vii) Wages and salaries in the current labour market are generally low. Intense competition for employment means that workers have low capacity to bargain in most countries. The real wages throughout Latin America and Africa have yet to return to levels considered normal twenty years ago.

(viii) Failure to create sufficient employment has undermined the prospects for poverty reduction. The number of people living in poverty fell in mid-1990s but then began to rise again in almost all countries. This is not because the world as a whole has been getting poorer but because the benefits of growth are not evenly spread. In reality, there has been a remarkable increase inequality over the past decades. In the developing countries, the rich can easily adjust to the new environment, but the poor are becoming poorer.

(ix) The globalisation is problematic not only because it complicates economic relationships between nations but also, because it concentrates economic power in the hands of the MNCs such a concentration of economic power leads to convergence of political and social power.

(x) Globalisation curtails social and economic rights of common citizens. It adversely effects social policy and reduces the role of state activities for the benefits and welfare of the common people.

Conculsion – Globalisation’s negative impacts have created dissatisfaction among the masses of developing countries. The people of these countries are concerned about numerous international negotiations which are taking place on agriculture, services and patent protection. The concern is whether the developing countries would get fair deal in these agreements.

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I. Meaning and definition of liberalisation.

The process of liberalisation is closely related to globalisation. Liberalisation is the economic content of globalisation. It is a process under which a highly regulated economy is transformed into an outward-looking economy.

After adoption of globalisation and liberalisation internal or domestic economy is liberalised through deregulation and decontrolling. The dominance of the state in most spheres of activity declines and gives way to private enterprises and companies. The privatisation of commerce and industry takes place by dismantling public sector units.

II. Philosophy and ideology behind liberalisation.

(i) The idea of liberalisation is essentially based on the thinking that the economy and society will be much better by reducing the state intervention. It is popularised by the slogan, Less State, Better State.

(ii) Liberalisation policy emphasises the efficiency aspect of economy. Private enterprises are considered more efficient than the public sector undertakings.

III. Liberalisation in India.

(i) First Phase of Liberalisation (1991 -1994)

The process of globalisation and liberalisation are more predominant in the contemporary world. Under such situation, our country is also facing challenges of these processes. A significant transformation has taken place in India since April 1991. Our country moved from a highly regulated and inward-looking to an outward-looking economy. The dominance of the state in most spheres of activity is giving way to private enterprises.

The system of regulations, licences, permits etc. declined. The quota permit raj is ending since 1991 day by day. From 1991 numerous structural changes have been introduced in economy. The first phase of reforms (1991-1994) focussed on the dismantling of controls and regulations in trade and industry. Taxes and tariffs were lowered. All these steps created a conducive climate for private investments both domestic and foreign.

(ii) Second Phase of Liberalisation in India.

The process of liberalisation and privatisation has further been accelerated in

India during the second phase of reforms. Two major developments in this phase are encouraging more to this process.

(a) More and more foreign direct investment in India and

(b) Downsizing the public (or government owned) sector.

From 1 April, 2001, all quantitative restrictions have been removed and the market is now open for imported products. Disinvestment in public sector undertaking has not only been inititated, but several corporations have already been sold to private enterprises.

IV. Evaluation of liberalisation in India.

(i) Bright side or positive results.

(a) Our country has now completed the first post liberalisation decade with satisfactory growth rates.

(b) Inflation has been contained in the post-liberation period.

(c) Industry is no longer protected from external forces.

(d) More recently, the breakthrough in Information Technology (IT) sector has proved skills of Indian professionals who are in great demand in developed countries of the world. It is expected than IT-related services would give boost to the economy in the years to come.

(ii) Dark Side or Negative Results

(a) Poverty continues to be one of almost important challenges in after 13-14 years of the beginning of liberalisation in India. Around 26.10 percent of the population is still below the poverty line.

(b) Unemployment is still a burning problem before India. In fact, situation with regard of employment continued to be grim. During the past 14-15 years, more retrenchment from jobs has taken place because companies have reduced their size or merged to face the rigour of competition. This is happening when the Indian economy is not able to generate suffcient jobs.

(c) In the era of liberalisation full employment, universal literacy, primary education (free and compulsory for all), health care and rising the quality of life for all citizens are equally challenging tasks to accomplish.

(d) Handicrafts and household industries are adversely being affected due to liberalisation. Economic liberalisation has affected this sector, which is threatened because of the entry of mechanised products and mass producers of these items in the local markets.

(e) Privatisation is affecting women in several ways. It has already started reducing employment opportunities due to introduction of sophisticated technology both in agriculture and industry.

Tips: -

Imp.

C.

Cereals and Pulses

A.

Bihar

C.

NREP

B.

Foodgrains

A.

2.1%

B.

of people in the developed countries

D.

All the above mentioned

A.

M. S. Swaminathan

A.

C.

Wheat and Rice

A.

Indian society is primarily a rural society.

B.

67%

A.

Tamil Nadu

B.

Assam

A.

Punjab

A.

Karnatak

D.

Traders

A.

Women

D.

All above mentioned

D.

All above mentioned system

A.

In South India particularly in Tamil-Telgu region

A.

Vinoba Bhave

A.

1960s and 1970s

A.

Punjab, Haryana, Western UP, Coastal Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu

B.

Hybrid varieties are less healthy than the traditional ones.

The Socio-Economic Consequences of Green Revolution in India.

1. Green Revolution has certainly improved the food situation in the country.

2. It has solved the problem of hunger and has given a strong base to the Indian economy for further growth.

3. It has transformed the mindset of farmers. In this regard, Andre Beteille has aptly remarked. “The green revolution has indeed created a new faith in the dynamism of the Indian farmer who has shown himself to be capable not only of quickly absorbing technological innovations but also of handling social arrangements with considerable dexterity”.

4. However, the impact of the Green Revolution has not been equally favourable for all sections of an agrarian population. What we desire to point out here is that this programme has brought destabilising impact on the socio-economic condition of small and poor peasants, sharecroppers and landless agricultural labourers.

5. India is a poor country. The new technology and the other inputs such as improved seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, water etc. are beyond the reach of small and marginal farmers. Naturally, some regions of our country with larger landholdings like Punjab have performed better than others like Bihar and Orissa where marginal and poor farmers are in plenty and institutional credit is not easily available. This has widened the gap between the small and the rich farmers.

6. The affluent farmers are enjoying the fruits of increased profits from land but the real wage rate for agricltural labourers has been declining in most places.

7. Most of the share-croppers are now joining the rank of landless labourers because small holdings are not available for leasing out to these share-croppers.

8. Economic inequality in agrarian sector has widened resulting in increased agrarian unrest in rural areas. During the late sixties and the early seventies, numerous cases of conflicts were reported especially from the Green Revolution belts (i.e., Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu).

In the contract farming the company chooses the crop to be grown, provides the seeds and other necessary inputs along the knowledge and often also the working capital. The farmers, in retrun, are assured of a market because the company concerned guarantees that it will purchase the produce at a predetermined fixed price. Consequently, contract farming is very common today in the production of a specialised item such as cut flowers, fruits like grapes, figs, pomegranates, cotton and oilseeds. In this way, contract farming provides security to farmers, it can also lead to greater insecurity as farmers become dependent on these companies for their livelihoods.Contract farming has sociological significance in that it disengages many people from the production process and makes their own indigenous knowledge of agriculture irrelevant. In addition, contract farming caters primarily to the production of elite items, and because it usually requires high doses of fertilisers and pesticides, it is often not ecologically sustainable.

(i) Farmers in our country for centuries have periodically faced lots of distress due to crop failures, drought and debt, the event of farmers' suicides appears to be new.
(ii) Sociologists have tried to analyze this event by looking at the structural and social changes that have been taking place in agrarian society. Such suicides have become 'Matrix Events'.

Following is the impact of land reforms on Indian agriculture after independence:
(i) Abolition of Zamindari System: The legislation regarding the abolition of Zamindari System was probably the most effective. It succeeded in taking away the superior rights of Zamindars over the land and weakening their economic and political power.
(ii) Tenancy Abolition & Regulation Acts: These laws attempted either to outlaw tenancy altogether or to regulate rents to give some security to the tenants.
(iii) Land Ceiling Acts: These laws imposed an upper limit on the amount of land that can be owned by a particular family. The state is supposed to identify and take possession of surplus land and the excess collected was redistributed for agricultural purpose to the landless.
(iv) Led to Benami transfers: In most cases landowners managed to divide the land among relatives and others including servants, in so-called 'benami transfers' which allowed them to keep control over it.

Several profound transformations in the nature of social relations in rural areas took place in the post-Independence period, especially in those regions that underwent the Green Revolution. These included:
(i)  an increase in the use of agricultural labour as cultivation became more intensive;
(ii)  a shift from payment in kind (grain) to payment in cash;
(iii) a loosening of traditional bonds or hereditary relationships between farmers or landowners and agricultural workers (known as bonded labour);
(iv) and the rise of a class of ‘free’ wage laborers’.
Along with these changes in the class structure, the spread of higher education, especially private professional colleges, in rural and semi-urban areas, allowed the new rural elites to educate their children – many of whom then joined professional or white collar occupations or started businesses, feeding into the expansion of the urban middle classes.

Agriculture & Cultural linkages:

1. No doubt, there is a close relationship between agriculture and culture. Cultural practices and patterns can be traced to our agrarian backgrounds e.g. Baishaki, Ugadi etc.
2. The variations in agriculture and culture are reflected in the different regional culture like -Celebration of new year festivals in different regions of India - Pongal, Bihu, Onam etc.

Advantages of contract farming: In the contract farming system, the company identifies the crop to be grown, provides the seeds and other inputs, as well as the know-how and often also the working capital. In return, the farmer is assured of a market because the company guarantees that it will purchase the produce at a predetermined fixed price. In this way, contract farming provides financial security to farmers.

Disadvantages of contract farming: It can lead to greater insecurity as farmers become dependent on these companies for their livelihoods. Contract farming of export-oriented products such as flowers and gherkins also means that agricultural land is diverted away from food grain production. In addition, Contract farming caters primarily to the production of elite items, and because it usually requires high doses of fertilisers and pesticides, it is often not ecologically sustainable.

1. The growth of migrant agricultural labour is one of the most significant changes in rural society. 

2. As ‘traditional’ bonds of patronage between labourers or tenants and landlords broke down,
   and as the seasonal demand for agricultural labour increased in prosperous.

3. Migrant labourers come mainly from drought-prone and less productive areas. These migrant workers have been termed as 'Foot loose labour' by Jan Berman. However, migration and lack of security create very pathetic working and living conditions for these workers

4. Women are also emerging as the main source of agricultural labour, leading to the
   ‘feminisation of agricultural labour force.

1. The nature and practice of agriculture varies greatly across the different regions of the country- these variations are reflected in different regional cultures.
2. Many of our cultural practices and patterns can be traced to our agrarian backgrounds.
3. Example:- Most of the New Year Festivals in different regions of India:- Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Baisakhi in Punjab celebrate the main harvest season that marks the beginning of new agriculture season.

The impact of green revolution and its major achievements are listed below:

1. Agricultural productivity increased sharply because of the new technology. India was able to become self-sufficient in foodgrain production for the first time in decades.
2. Rapid social and economic transformations were seen in in the areas of Punjab, Western UP, Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Parts of Tamil Nadu etc.
3. In most of the Green Revolution areas, it was primarily the medium and large farmers who were able to benefit from the new technology. Farmers who were able to produce a surplus for the market who were able to reap the most benefits from the Green Revolution.
4. The Green Revolution has been considered a major achievement of the government and of the scientists who contributed to the effort.

Several profound transformations were noticed in the areas where agriculture became more commercialized. i.e. where crops were being grown primarily for sale in the market. These included:

1. An increase in the use of agricultural labour as cultivation became more intensive.
2. A shift from payment in kind(grain) to payment in cash.
3. A loosening of traditional bonds or hereditary relationships between farmers or landowners and agricultural workers.
4. The rise of a class of 'free' wage labourers.
   Such transformations were regarded by some scholars as indicative of a transition to capitalist agriculture. As cultivation became more commercialized these rural areas were also becoming integrated into the wider economy.

Concept of circulation of labour:

1. Commercialisation of agriculture has been responsible for the growth of migrant agricultural labour. Seasonal demand for these labourers increased in Green Revolution regions like: PUNJAB.
2. Labourers migrate also due to the increasing inequalities in rural areas.Men migrate out periodically in search of work and better wages, while women and children are often left behind in their villages.
3. Migrant workers come mainly from drought-prone and less productive regions, and  they go to work for part of the year on farms in the Punjab and Haryana, or on brick kilns in U.P., or construction sites in cities such as New Delhi or Bangalore.
4. These migrant workers have been termed ‘footloose labour’ by Jan Breman. However, these landless workers do not have many rights and are also denied minimum wages.
5. The large-scale circulation of labour has had several significant effects on rural society, in both the receiving and the supplying regions.
6. Women are also emerging as the main source of agricultural labour, leading to the ‘feminisation of agricultural labour force. The insecurity of women is greater because they earn lower wages than men for similar work.

On account of low productivity, dependence on imported food grains, and the intense poverty of a large section of the rural, Land reforms are necessary not only to boost agricultural growth but also to eradicate poverty in rural areas and bring about social justice.
The impact of land reforms after independence:

1. From the 1950s to the 1970s, a series of land reform laws were passed – at the national level as well as in the states. The main aim of these laws was to change agrarian structure along with landholding system.
2. The most important and effective legislation was the abolition of the zamindari system, which removed the layer of intermediaries that stood between the cultivators and the state.
3. Among the other major land reform laws that were introduced were the tenancy abolition and regulation acts. They attempted either to outlaw tenancy altogether or to regulate rents to give some security to the tenants.
4.  One of the major categories of land reform laws were the Land Ceiling Acts. These laws imposed an upper limit on the amount of land that can be owned by a particular family. The ceiling varies from region to region, depending on the kind of land, its productivity, and other such factors.
5. The agrarian structure varies greatly across India, and the progress of land reforms has also been uneven across the states. On the whole, however, it can be said that the agrarian structure, although it has changed substantially from colonial times to the present, remains highly unequal.

Several profound transformations in the nature of social relations in rural areas took place in the post-Independence period, especially in those regions that underwent the Green Revolution. These included:

1. an increase in the use of agricultural labour as cultivation became more
   intensive;
2. a shift from payment in kind (grain) to payment in cash;
3. a loosening of traditional bonds or hereditary relationships between farmers or landowners and agricultural workers (known as bonded labour);
4. and the rise of a class of ‘free’ wage labourers’.

As cultivation became more commercialised, these rural areas were also becoming integrated into the wider economy. This process increased the flow of money into villages and expanding opportunities for business and employment.

1. Commercialization of agriculture has been responsible for the growth of migrant agricultural labour. Seasonal demand for agricultural labour increased in prosperous Green Revolution regions such as Punjab.
2. Seasonal migration emerged in which thousands of workers circulate between their home villages and more prosperous areas where there is more demand for labour and higher wages.
3. Labourers migrate also due to the increasing inequalities in rural areas from the mid-1990s, which have forced many households to combine multiple occupations to sustain themselves.
4. Jan Breman has termed the migrant workers as 'Footloose labour' However, these landless workers do not have many rights and are also denied minimum wages.

Land reforms after independence:

1. The first important legislation was the abolition of the zamindari system, which removed the layer of intermediaries that stood between the cultivators and the state. It proved most effective. It succeeded in taking away the superior rights of the zamindars over the land and weakening their economic and political power. 
2. The second major land reform was the tenancy abolition and regulation acts. They attempted either to outlaw tenancy altogether or to regulate rents to give some security to the tenants. In most of the states, these laws were never implemented very effectively.
3. The third major category of land reform laws were the Land Ceiling Acts. These laws imposed an upper limit on the amount of land that can be owned by a particular family. However, ceiling varied from region to region.
4. The agrarian structure varies greatly across India, and the progress of land reforms has also been uneven across the states. Land reforms are necessary not only to boost agricultural growth but also to eradicate poverty in rural areas and bring about social justice.

Following are the social consequences of the Green Revolution:

1. Agricultural productivity increased sharply because of the new technology. India was able to become self-sufficient in foodgrain production for the first time in decades.
2. The satisfactory economic condition of farmers changed their social relationships. Their purchasing power increased, it made the rich farmers better off.
3. The farmers who were able to produce a surplus for the market were able to reap the most benefits from the Green Revolution.
4. Green Revolution crops were highly profitable, mainly because they yielded more produce. Well-to-do farmers who had access to land, capital, technology, and know-how, and those who could invest in the new seeds and fertilisers, could increase their production and earn more money.
5. The introduction of machinery such as tillers, tractors, threshers, and harvesters (in areas such as Punjab and parts of Madhya Pradesh) led to the displacement of the service caste groups who used to carry out these agriculture-related activities.
6. It caused a process of 'differentiation' in which the rich grew richer and many of the poor stagnated or grew poorer. It also caused regional inequalities.

Landowners managed to divide the land among relatives and others, including servants, in so-called ‘benami transfers’ – which allowed them to keep control over the land (in fact if not in name).

There were many loopholes found in the implementation of Ceiling Act as ceiling various from region to region:

1. It has been observed in most of the states these acts proved to be toothless. There were many loopholes and other strategies through which most landowners were able to escape from having their surplus land taken over by the state.  
2. While some very large estates were broken up, in most cases landowners managed to divide the land among relatives and others, including servants, in so-called ‘benami transfers’ – which allowed them to keep control over the land (in fact if not in name).
3. In some places, some rich farmers actually divorced their wives (but continued to live with them) in order to avoid the provisions of the Land Ceiling Act, which allowed a separate share for unmarried women but not for wives.
4. It cannot be gainsaid that implementing of the ceiling act passed through many loopholes as ceiling varies from region to region, depending on the kind of land, its productivity and other such factors.

Role of state's initiatives to address caste and tribe discrimination:
(i) The Indian state has had special programmes for the Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes since Independence. Among the most significant additions is the extension of special programmes to the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) since the early 1990s.
(ii) The most important state initiative attempting to compensate for past and present caste discrimination is the one popularly known as ‘reservations’.
(iii) This initiative also involves the setting aside of some places or ‘seats’ for members of the  Scheduled Castes and Tribes in different spheres of public life. These include reservation of seats in the State and Central legislatures.
(iv) Apart from reservations, there have been a number of laws passed to end, prohibit and punish caste discrimination, specially untouchability. Ex:- Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850.