Social Change And Development In India Chapter 2 Cultural Change

(1) During the colonial period Industrialisation took place. Due to industrialisation, urbanisation also took place in India. These both changes (industrialisation and urbanisation) transformed the lives of the people.

(2) Due to industrialisation in several parts of the countries many factories grew up. Factories replaced fields as places of work for some.

(3) Cities (due to urbanisation) replaced villages as places to live for many.

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Due to colonialism living and working arrangements or structures changed. Changes also took place in culture, ways of life, norms, values, fashions, and even body language.

Socialogists understand, social sturcture as a continuing arrangement of persons in relationships defined or controlled institutions’ and culture as socially established norms or patterns of behaviour.

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The two mutually related developments, both a complex product of the impact of colonial rule in india were:

(1) The first deals with the deliberate and concious efforts made by the 19th century social reformers and early 20th century nationalists to bring about changes in social practices that discriminated against women and lower castes.

(2) The second with the less deliberate yet decisive changes in cultural practices that can broadly be understood as the four processes of sanskritisation, modernisation, secularisation and westernisation. Sanskritisation pre-dates the coming of colonial rule. The other three processes can be understood better as complex responses of the people of India to the changes that colonalism brought about.

The sociologists Sri Nivas explains the term westernisation in these words, “The changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule, and the term assumes changes occuring at different levels—technology, institutions like family education institution, castes, kinship, etc. ideology and values. Westernisation implies humanitarianism which in turn facilitated several reforms during the early nineteenth century. The abolition of inhuman practices such as Sati system, female infanticide and slavery was the result of reforms. Westernisation has also influenced political ideas and thinking. Nationalism and democracy are two ideas of the west, came to India through westernisation.

The upper caste who undergoes the initiation or the Thread ceremony’ to become, dwij, Rao as twice born caste.

The process of mobility of low caste Hindus to the upper caste hierarchy was inintially called Brahaminisation. But later on this word was replaced by Sanskritisation which was considered more appropriate.

For a caste to be dominant, it should own a sizeable amount of the arable land locally available, have strength of numbers and occupy a high place in the local hierarchy. Dominant castes have localised existance and operate as reference models for Sanskritising castes.

It is told by sociologists that several social reformers of 19th and early 20th century conveyed their ideas in a mix forms for the betterment of cultural change of the Indian societies. Some of the ideas of some prominent reformers are given in the following lines:

(i) Ram Mohan Roy attacked the practice of sati on the basis of both appeals to humanitarian and natural rights doctrines as well as Hindu shastras.

(ii) Ranade’s writings entitled the texts of the Hindu law on the Lawfulness of the remarriage of Widows and Vedic Authorities for Widow Marriage elaborated the shastric sanction for remarriage of widows.

(iii) The content of new education was modernising and liberal. The literary content of the courses in the humanities and social sciences was drawn from the literature of the European Renaissance, Reformation and Enlightment. Its themes were humanistic, secular and liberal.

(iv) Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan’s interpretation of Islam emphasised the validity of free enquiry (ijtihad) and the alleged similarities between koranic revelations and the laws of the nature discovered by modern science.

(v) Kandukiri Viresalingam’s The sources of Knowledge reflected his familiarity with navya-nyaya logic. At the same time he translated Julius Huxley.

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Several evils plagued Indian society in 19th century. The well known issues are that of (i) sati, (ii) child marriage, (iii) widow remarriage and (iv) caste discrimination.

Attempts: (i) It is not correct to say that attempts were not made to fight social discrimination in pre-colonial India.

(ii) Several social evils were central to Buddhism.

(iii) They were prominent to Bhakti and Sufi movements.

(iv) What marked these social evils 19th century social reform attempts was the modern context and mix of ideas.

(v) It was a creative combination of modern ideas of western liberalism and a new look on traditional literature.

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Sociologists Satish Saberwal elaborates upon the modern context by sketching three aspects to the modern frame work of change in colonial India.

(a) Modes of communication,

(b) Forms of organisation, and

(c) The nature of Ideas.

New technologies speeded up various forms of communication. The printing press, telegraph, and later her microphone, movement of people and goods through steamship and railways, helped quick movement of new ideas. Within India, social reformers from Punjab and Bengal exchanged ideas with reformers from Madras and Maharashtra. Keshav Chandra Sen of Bengal visited Madras in 1864. Pandita Ramabai travelled to different corners of the country. some of them went to other countries. Christian missionaries reached remote corners of present day Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya.

Cultural approach is primarily concerned with persons as a cultural being. The study of culture covers the ideas and values, social organisation, technology, language, myth, history and religion. for cultural analysts cultural meaning are more important than their behaviour manifestations.

Cultural analysts have studied the concept of person in Indian culture and tradition and processes of social change. There is a shift in culturological approach from the study of facts to the study of people’s ideas. They also try to discover the relationship between knowledge and reality as reflected in the peoples own model.

Modernisation, therefore, is the process of social in which development is the ecnomic component. Modernisation is a process change, which takes a country from underdevelopment to development. It produces social environment for economic development. The growth of industrialisation, urbanisation, national income and per capita income are taken as criteria of development.

Modernisation in India commanded after the arrival of Britishers. The contact with the west brought about far reaching changes in social structure and cultural institution. In the process of modernisation several traditional institutions and activities have been reinforced.

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All the cultural changes that occured during the British rule due to influence of western thoughts and culture are called the process of westernisation. Modified system of land settlements, modern army, police force, administrative system, the establishment of educational institutions have brought certain changes in Indian society. Westernization has also influenced political ideas and thinking. Nationalism and democrcy emerged as two great ideas in the west. They came to India through westernisation. The abolition of inhuman practices such as sati, female infantide and slavery was the result of reforms initiated by the Indian leaders. It was all the effect of westernisation.

I. According to Danial Thorner, “Modernisation is the current term for an old process”. The process of social change, whereby less developed societies acquire characteristics common to more developed societies. It is process of social change in which development is the economic component.

II. Modernisation is a process of change which takes a country from under development to development. It produces social environment for economic development. The growth of industrialisation, urbanisation, national income and per capita income are taken as criteria of development. Under modernisation structural transformation takes place in the economy, political and social institution. Modernisation changes values and attitudes.

According to M N. Srinivas, ‘Sanskritisation is a process by which a low Hindu caste, or tribal or other group changes its customs, ritual, ideology and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently, twice born castes.

It is an endogenous of source upwards mobility for a caste. The mobility caused by this process, however, leads to only positional changes in the system. It does not result in structural change. Change occurs within the caste hierarchy. The caste system itself does not change. It provides a channel for vertical mobility of groups and communities. It reveals motivation for status enhancement through imitation of the customs, rituals and ideology of the upper castes.

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(i) We begin our study of cultural changes with the concept sanskritisation. The reason for doing so is because it refers to a process that pertains to social mobility that existed before the onset of colonialism. And persisted in diverse ways subsequently. The other three changes as we shall shortly see, arose in a context marked by changes that colonialism brought about. This included direct exposure to modern western ideas of freedom and right.

(ii) As mentioned earlier this exposure heightened the sense of injustice on the one hand and humiliation on the other. Often this led to a desire to go back to one’s traditional past and heritage. It is within this mix that we can understand India’s tryst with modernisation, westernisation and secularisation.

Meaning and defintion of Sanskritisation: The term sanskritisation was coined by M. N. Srinivas. It may be briefly defined as the process by which a ‘low’ caste or tribe or other group takes over the customs, ritual, beliefs, ideology and style of life of a high and, in particular, a ‘twice-born (dwija) caste’.

Impact of Sanskritisation: The impact of Sanskritisation is many-sided. Its influence can be seen in language, literature, ideology, music, dance, drama, style of life and ritual.

1. Language: It is primarily a process that takes place within the Hindu space though Srinivas argued that it was visible even in sects and religious groups outside Hinduism. Studies of different areas, however, show that it operated differently in different parts of the country. In those areas where a highly Sanskritised caste was dominant, the culture of the entire region underwent a certain amount of Sanskritisation. In regions where the non-Sanskritic castes were dominant, it was their influence that was stronger. This can be termed the process of ‘de-Sanskritisation’. There were other regional variations too. In Punjab culturally Sanskritic influence was never very strong. For many centuries until the third quarter of the 19^th century the Persian influence was the dominant one.

2. Group or caste and tradition: srinivas argued that. “the Sanskritisation of a group has usually the effect of improving its position in the local caste hierarchy. It normally presupposes either an improvement in the economic or political position of the group concerned or a higher group self-consciousness resulting from its contact with a source of the Great Tradition of Hinduism such as a pilgrim centre or a monastery or a proselytising sect”.

3. Nature or set up of Indian society: But in a highly unequal society such as India there were and still are obstacles to any easy taking over of the customs of the higher castes by the lower. Indeed, traditionally, the dominant caste punished those low castes, which were audacious enough to attempt it. The story below captures the problem.

4. Education: Kumud Pawade in her autobiography recounts how a Dalit woman became a Sanskrit teacher. As a student she is drawn towards the study of Sanskrit, perhaps because it is the means through which she can break into a field that was not possible for her to enter on grounds of gender and caste. Perhaps she was drawn towards it because it would enable her to read in the original what the texts have to say about women and the Dalits. As she proceeds with her studies, she meets with varied reactions ranging from surprise to hostility, from guarded acceptance to brutal rejection.

5. For improvement of Status:

Sanskritisation suggests a process whereby people want to improve their status through adoption of names and customs of culturally high-placed groups. The reference model is usually financially better of. In both, the aspiration or desire to like the higher placed group occurs only when people become wealthier.

6. Social Mobility: Sanskritisation as a concept has been criticised at different levels.

(i) It has been criticised for exaggerating social mobility or the scope of ‘lower castes’ to , move up the social ladder. For it leads to no structural change but only positional change of some individuals. In other words inequality continues to persist though some individuals may be able to improve their positions within the unequal structure.

(ii) Secondly, it has been pointed out that the ideology of sanskritisation accepts the ways of the ‘upper caste’ as superior and that of the ‘lower caste’ as inferior. Therefore, the desire to imitate the upper caste is seen as natural and desirable.

(iii) Thirdly, ‘Sanskritisation’ seems to justify a model that rests on inequality and exclusion. It appears to suggest that to believe in pollution and purity of groups of people is justifiable or all right. Therefore, to be able to look down on some groups just as the ‘upper caste’ looked down on the ‘lower castes’, is a mark of privilege. In society where such a world-view exists, imagining of an equal society becomes difficult. The study on the next page shows how the very idea of purity and pollution are valued or seen as worthwhile ideas to have.

(iv) Fourth, since sanskritisation results in the adoption of upper caste rites and rituals it leads to practices of secluding girls and women, adopting dowry practices instead of bride-price and practising caste discrimination against other groups, etc.

(v) Fifth, the effect of such a trend is that the key characteristics of dalit culture and society are eroded. For example, the very worth of labour which ‘lower castes’ do is degraded and rendered ‘shameful’. Identities based on the basis of work, crafts and artisanal abilities, knowledge forms of medicine, ecology, agriculture, animal husbandry, etc., are regarded useless in the industrial era.

7. Anti-Brahminical Movement and impact on Dalits: (a) With the growth of the anti-Brahminical movement and the development of regional self-consciousness in the twentieth century there was an attempt in several Indian languages to drop Sanskrit words and phrases. A crucial result of the Backward Classes Movement was to emphasise the role of secular factors in the upward mobility of caste groups and individuals. In the case of the domiant castes, there was no longer any desire to pass for the Vaisyas, Kshatriyas and Brahmins.

(b) On the other hand, it was prestigious to be a member of the dominant caste. Recent years have seen likewise assertions of Dalits who now pride their indentity as Dalits.

(c) However, sometimes as among the poorest and the most marginalised of the dalit caste groups, caste identity seems to compensate their marginality in other domains. In other words, they have gained some pride and self-confidence but otherwise remain excluded and discriminated.

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(i) Modernisation is a process which takes a country from underdevelopment to development. It produces social environment for economic development. The growth in industrialisation, urbanisation, national income and per capita income are taken as criteria of development.
(ii) Under modernisation structural transformation takes place in the economic, political and social insitutions and in values and attitudes also. The idea of modernisation has also been analysed in the terms of the paired concepts of tradition and modernity.

(iii) Modernisation in India commenced after the arrival of the British rule. The contact with the west brought about far reaching changes in social structure and cultural institutions. Changes were witnessed in almost all important areas of life.

(iv) The British administration introduced new arrangements in legal agrarian, educational and administrative dominions. Most of these led to structural modernisation. The emergence and growth of a nationalist political leadership was also the result of growing modernisation of Indian society. In the process of modernisation several traditional institutions and activities have been changed.

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Any collective mobilisation for action directed explicity towards an alteration or transformation of the structure of a system can be properly understood as a social movement.

Features of social movement:

1. Social movement is a collective mobilisation as against occasional individual efforts. Social movements are organised collective endeavours.

2. The organisational structure and leadership is another vital aspect of a social movement.

3. Distribution of tasks is required in every movement. These tasks are assigned to different persons and units of the group depending upon personal qualities and commitments of individuals.

A persuasive leader leads a movement support of the masses tends to be spontaneous. Different levels of organisations are devised on the basis of movements, aims and objectives.

4. Social movements cannot keep itself alive unless it develops its ideological frame and identity.

5. Social movement is change-oriented. Every movement is directed towards some change according to its aims and objectives. The relationship between social movements and social change is well-established.

(i) Meaning and definition of Westernistion: M. N. Srinivas defines westernisation as “the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule, the term subsuming changes occurring at different levels...technology, insitutions, ideology and values”.

(ii) Different Types of Westernisation:

(a) Ways of Thinking: One kind refers to the emergence of a westernised sub-cultural pattern through a minority section of Indians who first came in contact with Western culture. This included the sub-culture of Indian intellectuals who not only adopted many cognitive patterns, or ways of thinking, and styles of life, but supported its expansion. Many of the early 19th century reformers were of this kind.

(b) Ways of living: There were, therefore, small sections of people who adopted western life styles or were affected by western ways of thinking. Apart from this there has been also the general spread of Western cultural traits, such as the use of new technology, dress, food, and changes in the habits and styles of people in general. Across the country a very wide section of middle class homes have a television set, a fridge, some kinds of sofaset, a dining table and chair in the living room.

(iii) Merely Imitation of culture but not following the latest thoughts: Westernisation does involve the imitation of external forms of culture. It does not necessarily mean that people adopt modern values of democracy and equality.

(iv) Impact on Indian Art: Apart from ways of life and thinking the west influenced Indian art and literature. Artists like Ravi Varma, Abanindranath Tagore, Chandu Menon and Bankimchandra Chattopadhya were all grappling with the colonial encounter. The box below captures the many ways that style, technique and the very theme of an artist like Ravi Varma were shaped by western and idigenous traditions. It discusses the portrait of a family in a matrilineal community of Kerala but one that signficantly resembles the very typical patrilineal nuclear family of the modern west consisting of father, mother and children.

(v) Westernisation and different groups of caste l.e., lower caste group and upper caste group: Srinivas suggested that while ‘lower castes’ sought to be Sanskritised, ‘upper castes’ sought to be Westernised. In a diverse country like India this generalisation is difficult to maintain. For instance, studies of Thiyyas (by no means considered ‘upper caste’) in Kerala show conscious efforts to westernise. Elite Thiyyas appropriated British culture as a move towards a more cosmopolitan life that criticised caste.

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Rites and Secularisation: (i) We often marry within a caste or community. Religious beliefs continue to dominate our lives. At the same time we do have a scientific tradition. We also have a vibrant secular and democratic political system. At the same time we have caste and community based mobilisation. How do we understand these processes? This chapter has been trying to understand this mix.

(ii) It would be simplistic, however, to term the complex combination just as a mix of tradition and modernity as though tradition and modernity themselves are fixed entities. Or as though India has or had just one set of traditions. We have already seen that both plurality and a tradition of argumentation have been defining features of ‘traditions’ of India.

Caste and secularisation: (i) There has also been considerable debate about what is seen by some as secularisation of caste. What does this mean? In traditional India caste system operated within a religious framework. Belief systems of purity and pollution were central to its practice. Today it often functions as political pressure groups. Contemporary India has seen such formation of caste associations and caste political parties. They seek to press their demands upon the state . Such a changed role of caste has been described as secularisation of caste.

(ii) In the sentances below this process highly unequal society like India their were and still are obstacles to any easy taking over of the customs of the higher castes by the lower. Indeed, traditionally, the dominant caste punished those low castes, which were audacious enough to attempt it. The story below captures the problem.

(iii) Everyone recognises that the traditional social system in India was orgnised around caste structures and caste identities.

In dealing with the relationship between caste and politics, however the doctrinaire moderniser suffers from a serious xenophobia. He begins with the questions: is caste disappearing? Now, surely no social system disappears like that. A more useful point of departure would be: what from is caste taking under the impact of modern politics, and what form is politics taking in a caste-oriented society?
(iv) Those in India who complain of ‘casteism to politics’ are really looking for a sort of politics, which has no basis in society...Politics is a competitive enterprise, its purpose is the acquisition of power for the realisation of certain goals, and its process is one of identifying and manipulating existing and emerging allegiances in order to mobilise and consolidate positions. The important thing is organisation and articulation of support, and where politics is mass-based the point is to articulate support though the organisations in which the masses are to be found. It follows that where the caste structure provides one of the principal organisational clusters along which the bulk of the population is found to live, politics must strive to organise through such a structure.

Gender and Sanskritisation: Sanskritisation support traditional way of life for women and it is more liberal for modernisation or westernisation for men. For example, during the colonial period boys were allowed to attend English Medium School, coeducation institution to adopt western food and diet style of meal and dresses. For Boys not for girls and women. Most of the supporters Sanskritisation support the women life within the four walls of the houses. They support or prefer the role of women as a mother as a sister and daughter with great owner. They like women to follow the traditional way of marriage with the consent of parents. Even during the ancient period like the people of lower caste women were not allowed to go for higher education in Sanskrit language and literature on a reasonably large number The same idea has been described by a women scholar.

Kumud Pawade in her autobiography recounts how a Dalit woman became a Sanskrit teacher. As a student she is drawn towards the study of Sanskrit, perhaps because it is the means through which she can break into a field that was not possible for her to enter on the ground of gender and caste. Perhaps she was drawn towards it because it would enable her to read in the original what the texts have to say about women and the Dalits. As she proceeds with her studies, she meets with varied reactions ranging from surprise to hostility, from guarded acceptance to brutal rejection. As she says:

The result is that although I try to forget my caste, it is impossible to forget. And then I remember an expression I heard somewhere: “What comes by birth, but can’t be cast off by dying - that is caste?”

(i) Rise of Social Organisation:

Modern social organisations like the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal and Arya Samaj in Punjab were set up. The All-India Muslim Ladies Conference (Anjuman-E-Khawatn-E-Islam) was founded in 1914. Indian reformers debated not just in public meetings but through public media like newspapers and journals. Translations of writings of social reformers from one Indian language to another took place. For instance, Vishnu Shastri published a Marathi translation of Vidyasagar’s book in Indu Prakash in 1868.

(ii) Rise of new ideas promoted by colonial rule and modern Indian social reformers:

(a) New ideas of liberalism and freedom, new ideas of homemaking and marriage, new roles for mothers and daughters, new ideas of self-conscious pride in culture and tradition emerged. The value of education became very important. It was seen as very crucial for a nation to become modern but also retain its ancient heritage.

(b) The idea of female education was debated intensely. Significantly, it was the social reformer Jotiba Phule who opened the first school for women in Pune. Reformers argued that for a society to progress women have to be educated. Some of them believed that in pre-modern India, women were educated. Others contested this on the grounds that this was so only of a privileged few. Thus attempts to justify female education were made by recourse to both modern and traditional ideas. They actively debated the meanings of tradition and modernity.

(c) Jotiba Phule thus recalled the glory of pre-Aryan age while others like Bal Gangadhar Tilak emphasised the glory of the Aryan period. In other words 19th century reform initiated a period of questioning, reinterpretations and both intellectual and social growth.

(i) The varied social reform movements did have common themes yet there were also significant differences. For some the concerns were confined to the problems that the upper caste, middle class women and men faced. For others the injustices suffered by the discriminated castes were central questions.

For some social evils had emerged because of a decline of the true spirit of Hinduism. For others caste and gender oppression was intrinsic of the religion.

(ii) Likewise Muslim social reformers actively debated the meaning of polygamy and purdah. For example, a resolution against the evils of polygamy was proposed by Jahanara Shah Nawas at the India Muslim Ladies Conference. She argued:

... the kind of polygamy which is practiced by certain sections of the Muslims is against the true spirit of the Quran... and it is the duty of the educated women to experience their influence among the relations to put an end to this practice.

(iii) The resolution condemning polygamy caused considerable debate in the Muslim press. Tahsib-e-Niswan, the leading journal for women in the Punjab, came out in favour of the resolve, but others disapproved.

(iv) Debates within communities were common during this period. For instance, sati was opposed by the Brahmo Samaj. Orthodox members of the Hindu community in Bengal formed an organisation called Dharma Sabha and petitioned the British arguing that reformers had no right to interpret sacred texts.

(v) Yet another view increasingly voiced by Dalits was a complete rejection of the Hindu fold. For instance, using the tools of modern education. Muktabai, a 13 year old student in Phule’s school writes in 1852:

Let that religion

Where only one person is privileged

And the rest are deprived

Perish from this earth

And let it never enter our minds To be proud of such a religion...

D.

All above mentioned

D.

Hoarding

D.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

D.

The all above (a, b and c)

A.

Madras

A.

Christian Missionaries

B.

Bengal

A.

Punjab

A.

1914

A.

Patna

A.

Pre Aryan Age

A.

Aryan Period

C.

Bangalore

A.

Orthodox members of the Sikh community

D.

Westernisation

B.

Vidya Sagar

B.

Twice borne caste

A.

John Stuart Mill

A.

Artist

A.

1828

A.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

C.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

1. The term' westernization'  refers to the adoption of western culture, traditions and customs.   Indian people started adopting western thoughts and culture during the British rule.
2. Westernization has also influenced political ideas and thinking. For example, Nationalism and democracy emerged as two great ideas in the west. They came to India through westernisation.

Waven silk spinners and twisters of bihar lost their jobs once the Chinese and Korean silk came the market. Consumers prefer this yarn at is somewhat cheaper and has shine.

Modernity assumes that local ties and parochial perspectives give way to universal commitments and cosmopolitan attitudes, that the truths of utility, calculation and science take precedence over those of emotions, that identity be chosen and achieved, not ascribed and affirmed, that work be separated from family, residence and community in bureaucratic organzation.

If we look into the two processes of modernisation and secularisation together no doubt they are closely linked as both are part of a set of modern ideas. Modernization refers in social sciences to the process of evolution from the traditional into modern society.
Secularization marks a process in which especially in industrialized societies the religious beliefs, practices institutions have lost their former social importance, the traditional beliefs are subjected to rational questioning, the monopoly of religious symbols is broken with the pluralization of the life spheres and people have established more control on their environment with the rise of individualism.
As a result of modernization, there occurs a partition from religious thoughts and practices and even from the metaphysical conceptions in all realms of human life.

Effects of Casteism on politics:

1. Since independence our democratic system is affected by the virus of hatred and casteism. It's roots are grown so deep that it is becoming almost impossible to uproot it. On the other hand, Political parties are not paying any attention to sort out this problem as it is busy with focussing to attract more and more votes..
2. The menance of Casteism and its negative impact on politics is on the increase, The caste-based politics parties have changed the whole democratic system into a voteyard.
3. It is a myopic concept. It refers to superiority and inferiority and further closes already divided castelines. Its interpretation of politics is not based on the principle of merit. It places caste interests ahead of political principles. Basically in the name of caste merit and quality are generally ignored.
4. It cannot be gainsaid that Castes have been changed into the votebank ghettos. The system of casteism has become the bone of our democratic system. Political equations are controlled by caste calculus.

The caste factor is an important factor of electoral politics in India. All political parties give great weightage to the caste factor in selecting their candidates, in allocating constituencies to their candidates and in canvassing support for their nominees in the election.

Modernity Involves:

1. Local ties and parochial perspective give way to universal commitments and cosmopolitan attitudes.
2. Behaviour, thought, attitude is not decided by family, tribe, caste, community etc.
3. Occupation/work based on choice not birth.
4. Scientific & rational approach / attitude prevails over emotion.
5. Positive and desirable values – humanitarian, egalitarian etc.

Sociologist Satish Saberwal elaborates upon the three aspects of change in colonial India as under:

1. Modes of communication
2. Forms of organization
3. The nature of ideas

Modes of Communication: New technologies speeded up various forms of communication. The printing press, telegraph, and later the microphone, movement of people and goods through steamship and railways helped quick movement of new ideas. Within India, social reformers from Punjab and Bengal exchanged ideas with reformers from Madras and Maharashtra.

Forms of organization: Modern social organisations like the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal and Arya Samaj in Punjab were set up. The All-India Muslim Ladies Conference (Anjuman-E-Khawatn-E-Islam) was founded in 1914. Indian reformers debated not just in public meetings but through public media like newspapers and journals.

The nature of ideas: New ideas of liberalism and freedom, new ideas of homemaking and marriage, new roles for mothers and daughters, new ideas of self-conscious pride in culture and tradition emerged. The value of education became very important. Most important, The idea of female education was debated intensely.

Sanskritisation refers to a process whereby members of a (usually middle or lower) Caste attempt to raise their own social status by adopting the ritual, domestic and social practices of a caste (or Castes) of a higher status.
De-sanskritisation: The regions where non-Sanskritic caste was dominant, it was their influence that was stronger. This can be termed as the process of 'De-Sankritisation'.

1. Although several social reform movement aimed at 'upliftment', they were different as they focused on varied issues of Indian societies like
   social evils, women, caste exploitation, birth-based privileges, polygamy,
   purdah, discrimination etc.
2. For some the concerns were confined to the problems that the upper caste, middle-class women and men faced.
3. For others the injustices suffered by the discriminated castes were central questions. For some social evils had emerged because of a decline of the true spirit of Hinduism.
4. The Muslim Social reformers actively debated and discussed the meaning of polygamy and purdah. Jahanara Shah Nawas proposed a resolution against the evils of polygamy at the All India Muslim Ladies Conference.

The term social structure is understood as continuing arrangement of persons in a relationship defined or controlled by various institutions and culture as socially established norms or patterns of behaviour.

1. M.N. Srinivas defines westernisation as “the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule, the term subsuming changes occurring at different levels…technology, institutions, ideology and values”.
2. The process of Westernisation had different kinds. One kind refers to the emergence of a westernised sub-cultural pattern through a minority section of Indians who first came in contact with Western culture. 
3. The Indian intellectuals who not only adopted many cognitive patterns or ways of thinking and styles of life but also gave support to its expansion. There were many early 19th Century reformers of this type.
4. Westernisation does involve the imitation of external forms of culture. It does not necessarily mean that people adopt modern values of democracy and equality.

The term Sanskritisation was coined by M.N. Srinivas. It may be defined as the process by which a ‘low’ caste or tribe or other group takes over the customs, ritual, beliefs, ideology and style of life of a high and, in particular, a ‘twice-born (dwija) caste’.
  It has been criticized at different levels:
(i) It has been criticised for exaggerating social mobility or the scope of ‘lower castes’ to move up the social ladder. For it leads to no structural change but only positional change of some individuals. 
(ii) It has been pointed out that the ideology of Sanskritisation accepts the ways of the ‘upper caste’ as superior and that of the ‘lower caste’ as inferior.
(iii) Sanskritisation’ seems to justify a model that rests on inequality and exclusion. It appears to suggest that to believe in pollution and purity of groups is justifiable.
(iv) It leads to practices of secluding girls and women, adopting dowry practices instead of bride-price and practising caste discrimination against other groups, etc.
(v) The effect of Sanskritisation was such that the key characteristics of dalit culture and society are eroded. For example the very worth of labour which ‘lower castes’ do is degraded and rendered ‘shameful'.

1. The term Sanskritisation was coined by M.N. Srinivas. It may be defined as the process by which a ‘low’ caste or tribe or other group takes over the customs, ritual, beliefs, ideology and style of life of a high and, in particular, a ‘twice-born (dwija) caste’.
2. The impact of Sanskritisation is many-sided. Its influence can be seen in language, literature, ideology, music, dance, drama, style of life and ritual.
3. It is primarily a process that takes place within the Hindu space though Srinivas argued that it was visible even in sects and religious groups outside Hinduism.
4. Through 'Sanskritisation' people want to improve their status through adoption of names and customs of culturally high placed groups.