Social Change And Development In India Chapter 1 Structural Change

India has a long and rich history.

While knowing about India’s past in ancient and medieval times is very important, its colonial experiences, particularly significance for comprehending modern India. This is not just because many modern ideas and institutions reached India through colonialism. It is also because such an exposure to modern ideas was contradictory or paradoxical.

(a) Colonialism: Colonialism simply means the establishment of rule by one country lover another. In the modern period western Colonialism has had the greatest impact.
(b) Industrialisation: Industrialisation refers to the emergence of machine production, based on the use of inanimate power resources like steam or electricity. A prime feature of industrial societies today is that a large majority of the employed population work in factories, offices or shops rather than agriculture.

(c) Urbanisation: Urbanisation it is process of migration of population from rural areas and smaller towns to bigger towns and cities on a large scale due to social, economical and political causes.

The British Government official reports show how the colonial government often used unfair means to hire and forcibly keep labourers and clearly acted on behalf of the British planters. From fictional and other accounts we get a glimpse of what life was for the tea planters in this industry.

(i) Significantly the colonial administrators were clear that harsh measures were taken against the labourers to make sure the benefits to the planters.

(ii) They were also fully aware that the laws of a colonised country did not have to stick to the democratic norms that the British back home had to follow in Britain.

Change is a fact of human life. We may not be aware of it in our day-to-day experience but it continues to affect us in one way or the other. A hundred or thousand years may take place to undergo a change in the life of mountains and rocks but in human society changes takes place in the course of merely a generation or two.

The study of social change in India is important for several reasons:

(i) It tells us how contemporary Indian society is transforming from a traditional society to a modern developed society.

(ii) The study of social change shows how changes are taking place in our social institutions (such as family, caste, kinship, etc.) and what the factors bringing about such changes.

(iii) It also indicates our achievements as a nation and identifies problems and setbacks in certain areas of our life.

Social change is a process, in the sense that it involves a series of events over a period of time. The idea of continuity is implied in it and shows a sequence of operations that bring about change.

The notion of process (of social change) indicates two chief dimentions of social change:

1. its nature and 2. direction. While the nature of change reveals content of change, the direction speaks about the line in which it is moving.

Impact of colonial forest policy in North-East India:

(i) Beginning of railways: The advent of the railways in Bengal...marked an important turning point, which saw the conversion of its forest policy in Assam (Assam was then part of the Bengal province) from one of laissez faire into one of active intervention. ...The demand for railway sleepers transformed the forests in Assam (this included all the present-day seven sister states) from an unproductive wilderness into a lucrative source of revenue for the colonial administration.

(ii) Area under Forests: Between 1861 and 1878, an area of approximately 269 square miles had been constituted as reserved forests. By 1894, the area had gone up to 3,683 square miles. And, by the end of the nineteenth century, the area of forests under the department was 20,061 square miles (constituting 42.2 per cent of the total area of the province), of which 3,609 square miles comprised reserved forests.

(iii) Effect on Tribal Peoples: Significantly, large areas of these forests are located in the hill areas occupied by tribal communities who for centuries depended upon and lived in close harmony with nature.

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V. Imp.

Meaning of Structural Change:

(i) Structural processes of change due to a transformation in the network of social relationships.

(ii) Caste, kinship, family and occupational groups constitute some of the structural realities. Change in these relationships is a structural change.

(iii) When the traditional agrarian system based on family labour is transformed into agrarian system based on hired labour with a view to produce for the market, we may call it a structural change.

(iv) Another example can be the transformation of joint family to nuclear family brings about change in structure and function of family. It is through the process of differentiation of roles that structural change takes place.

(i) Historically, we know that nation state developed in Europe after the downfall of feudalism. Nation state took place in Germany, Britain, France, Spain, Polland, Belgium, etc. With the beginning of first decade of the twentieth century national states became the dominant political form. That we all live in nation states and that we all have a nationality or a national citizenship may appear natural to us today.

(ii) Before the First World War passports were not widely used for international travel, and in the most areas few people had one. Societies were, however, not always organised on these lines.

(iii) Nation state pertains to a particular type of state, characteristic of the modern world. A government has sovereign power within a defined territorial area, and the people are citizens of a single nation. Nation states are closely associated with the rise of nationalism.

(iv) The principle of nationalism assumes that any set of people have a right to be free and exercise sovereign power. It is an important part of the rise of democratic ideas.

(v) It must have struck you that the practice of colonialism and the principle of nationalism and democratic rights are contradictory. For colonial rule implied foreign rule such as British rule over India.

(vi) Nationalism implied that the people of India or of any colonised society have an equal right to be sovereign. Indian nationalist leaders were quick to grasp this irony. They declared that freedom or swaraj was their birth-right and fought for both political and economic freedom.

(i) Urbanisation is a process by which people instead of living in villages start living in towns and cities. It involves process by which agriculture based habitat is transformed into non-agricultural urban habitat.

(ii) After independence remarkable changes have taken place. The proportion of urban population to the total population increased from 17.6 per cent in 1951 to 25.7 per cent in 1991.

(iii) The number of cities with population of one million or more increased from 5 to 23 during the same period. A large number of people from rural areas are shifting not only to big cities but even to medium sized cities and small towns. Migrants are mainly employed in manufacturing and service occupations.

(i) Introduction: India’s past has been marked by the entry of numerous groups of people at different times who have established their rule over different parts of what constitutes modern India today.

(ii) Differences:

(a) The impact of colonial rule is distinguished from all other earlier rules because the changes it brought in were far-reaching and deep. History is full of examples of the annexation of foreign territory and the domination of weaker by stronger powers. Nevertheless, there is a vital difference between the empire building of pre-capitalist times and that of capitalist times.

(b) Apart from outright pillage, the precapitalist conquerors benefited from their domination by exacting a continuous flow of tribute. On the whole they did not interfere with the economic base. They simply took the tribute that was skimmed off the economic surplus that was produced traditionally in the subjugated areas. (Alavi and Shanin, 1982).

(c) In contrast British colonialism which was based on a capitalist system directly interfered to ensure greatest profit and benefit to British capitalism. Every policy was geared towards the strengthening and expansion of British capitalism. For instance, it changed the very laws of the land. It changed not just land ownership laws but decided even what crops ought to be grown and what ought not to be. It meddled with the manufacturing sector.

(d) It altered the way production and distribution of goods took place.

(e) It entered into the forests. It cleared trees and started tea-plantations. It brought into the Forest Acts that changed the lives of pastoralists. They were prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle.

Introduction of charges in several spheres: (i) To facilitate the smooth functioning of its rule, colonialism introduced a wide array of changes in every sphere, be it legal or cultural or architectural. Colonialism was a only apart in the very scale and intensity of the changes that it brought about. Some of these changes were deliberate while some took place in an unintended fashion.

Example: We saw how western education was introduced to create Indians who would manage British colonialism. Instead it led to the growth of a nationalist and anticolonial consciousness.

(ii) This magnitude and depth of the structural changes that colonialism unleashed can be better grasped if we try and understand some basic features of capitalism.

(iii) Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and organised to accumulate profits within a market system.

(iv) Capitalism in the west emerged out of a complex process of European exploration of the rest of the world, its plunder of wealth and resources, an unprecedented growth of science and technology, its harnessing to industries and agriculture. What marked capitalism from the very beginning was its dynamism, its potential to grow, expand, innovate, use technology and labour in a way best assured to ensure greatest profit. What marked it too was its global nature.

(v) Western colonialism was inextricably connected to the growth of western capitalism. This had a lasting impact on the way capitalism developed in a colonised country like India. In the next section on industrialisation and urbanisation we see how colonialism led to very distinct patterns.

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V. Imp.

Impact of colonialism of our life: Before August 1947, India was a colony of Britain. British colonialism had greatly influence the lives of the Indian culturally as well as politically.

(a) Some cultural impact in field of ideas and philosophy:

(i) Many modern ideas and institutions reached India through colonialism. Due to colonialism the Indians experience exposure to modern ideas which was contradictory or paradoxical.

Example: Indians in the colonial period read about western liberalism and freedom. Yet they lived under a western, colonial rule that denied Indians liberty and freedom. It is contradictions of this kind that shaped many of the structural and cultural changes.

(b) Some social Impacts: Our social organisation, social reform, our industry, our agriculture, our cities, towns and villages were affected due to colonialism. For example: Diet and food manners of the Indians were affected due to British rule. We have ‘bread-omelette’ and ‘cutlets’ as menu offered in many roadside eateries and canteens A very popular manufacturer of biscuits, is actually named after Britain. Many school uniforms include neck-ties.

(c) Some Political Impacts: Politically India was affected greatly due to colonialism-India had all types of adverse political effects nearly for 190 (1754-1947). However, these were some good political experience gained by the Indian during period of colonialism.

For example: Indians in the colonial period read about western liberalism and freedom. Our nationalist movement, our several acts and laws, our political system and our constitution had been shaped by our paradoxical experience with colonialism. We have a parliamentary and a legal system, a police and educational system built very much on the British Model. We drive on the left side of the road like the British.

(d) Introduction Impact of English (language): English language and western literature and thought is a very powerful proof of colonial rule over India. We can give an example of English language to show how its impact has been many sided and paradoxical in India. This is not a matter about wrong spellings alone.

(e) English is not only widely used in India but we now have an impressive body of literary writings by Indians in English. This knowledge of English has given Indians an edge in the global market. But English continues to be a mark of privilege.

(f) Not knowing English is a disadvantage that tells in the job market. At the same time for those who were traditionally deprived of access to formal education such as the dalits, knowledge of English may open doors of opportunities that were formerly closed.

Colonialism brought into new political, economic and social structural changes in India, introduction of capitalism and its impact on different regions were felt. British colonialism which was based on a capitalist system directly interfered to ensure greatest profit and benefit to British capitalism. Every policy was geared towards the strengthening and expansion of British capitalism. For instance it changed the very laws of the land. It changed not just land ownership laws but decided even what crops ought to be grown and what ought not.

(g) It meddled with the manufacturing sector. It altered the way production and distribution of goods took place. It entered into the forests. It cleared trees and started tea plantations. It brought in Forest Acts that changed the lives of pastoralists. They were prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle.

(h) Impact on movement of the people: Colonialism also led to considerable movement of people. It led to movement of people from one part to another within India. For instance, people from present day Jharkhand moved to Assam to work on the tea-plantations.

(i) A newly emerging middle class particularly from the British Presidency regions of Bengal and Madras moved as government employees and professionals like doctors and lawyers moved to different parts of the country. People were carted in ships from India to work on other colonised lands in distant Asia, Africa and Americas. Many died on their way. Most could never return. Today many of their descendents are known as people of Indian origin.

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M. Imp.

(i) Meaning of industrialisation: Industrialisation refers to the emergence of machine production, based on the use of inanimate power resources like steam or electricity. A prime feature of industrial societies today is that a large majority of the employed population work in factories, offices or shops rather than agriculture.

(ii) Meaning of Urbanisation: pertaining to development of cities, towns, metrocities is called urbanisation. In such process a very large portion of a country or nation state moves from rural areas to urban areas. For example, - When we say that over 90 percent of people in the west live in towns and cities. We may say that almost western countries are totally urbanised.

Mutually link between industrialisation and urbanisation: Industrialisation is the most powerful factor in growth and development of urbanisation. In countries or continents where industrialisation takes place, most jobs are to be found and new job opportunities are created due to industrialisation in urban areas. Therefore, Usually most of the scholars and general people associate urbanisation with industrialisation. They aften do occur together but not always so.

Example: (i) For instance in Britain, the first society to undergo industrialisation, was also the earliest to move from being rural to a predominantly urban country.

(ii) In 1800, well under 20 per cent of the population lived in towns or cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants. By 1900 this proportion had become 74 per cent. The capital city, london, was home to about 1.1 million people in 1800; it increased in size to a population of over 7 million with the beginning of the twentieth century.

London was then by far the largest city ever seen in the world, a vast manufacturing, commercial and financial centre at the heart of a still expanding British empire.

(iii) In India the impact of the very same British industrialisation led to deindustrialisation in some sectors. And decline of old urban centres. Just as manufacturing boomed in Britain, traditional exports of cotton and silk manufacturing from India declined in the face of Manchester competition.

(iv) This period also saw the further decline of cities such as Surat and Masulipatnam while Bombay and Madras grew. When the British took over Indian states, towns like Thanjavur, Dhaka, and Murshidabad lost their courts and, therefore, some of their artisans and court gentry.

(v) From the end of the 19th century, with the installation of mechanised factory industries, some towns became much more heavily populated.

(vi) Unlike Britain where the impact of industrialisation led to more people moving into urban areas, In India the initial impact of the same British industrialisation led to more people moving into agriculture. The Census of India Report show this clearly.

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M. Imp.

Impact of British industrialisation on India: (i) In India the impact of the very same British industrialisation led to deindustrialisation in some sectors. And decline of old urban centres. Just as manufacturing boomed in Britain, traditional exports of cotton and silk manufacturing from India declined in the face of Manchester competition.

(ii) This period also saw the further decline of cities such as Surat and Masulipatnam while Bombay and Madras grew.

(iii) When the British took over Indian states, towns like Thanjavur, Dhaka, and Murshidabad lost their courts and therefore, some of their artisians and court gentry. From the end of the 19th century, with the installation of mechanised factory industries, some towns became much more heavily populated.

(iv) Urban luxury manufactures like the high quality silks and cottons of Dacca or Murshidabad must have been hit first by the almost simultaneous collapse of indigenous court demand and the external market on which these had largely depended.

(v) Village crafts in the interior, and particularly, in regions other than eastern India where British penetration was earliest and deepest, probably survived much longer, coming to be seriously affected only with the spread of railways. Unlike Britain where the impact of industrialisation led to more people moving into urban areas.

(vi) In India the initial impact of the same British industrialisation led to more people moving into agriculture. The Census of India Report shows this clearly.

Britain Industrialisation’s Impact on Brtain’s Urbanisation:

(1) Industrialisation refers to the emergence of machine production, based on the use of inanimate power resources like steam or electricity.

(2) In most standard western textbook of sociology, we learn that even in the most advanced of traditional civilizations, most people were engaged in working on the land. The relatively low level of technological development did not permit more than a small minority to be freed from the chores of agricultural production.

(3) By contrast, prime feature of industrial societies today is that a large majority of the employed population work in factories, offices or shops rather than agriculture. Over 90 per cent of people in the west live in towns and cities, where most jobs are to be found and new job apportunities are created.

(4) Not surprisingly, therefore, we usually associate urbanisation with industrialisation. They often do occur together but not always so.

Example: For instance, in Britain the first society to undergo industrialisation, was also the earliest to move from being rural to a predominantly urban country.

(5) In 1800, well under 20 per cent of the population lived in towns or cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants. By 1900 this proportion had become 74 per cent. The capital city, London, was home to about 1.1 million people in 1800; it increased in size to a population of over 7 million by the start of the twentieth century.

(6) London was then by far the largest city ever seen in the world, a vast manufacturing, commercial and financial centre at the heart of a still expanding British empire.

I am familiar with many towns or cities. Here I will mention only two cities.

Cities number one - London:

History:

(a) Introduction: By 1750, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. It was a colossal city with a population of about 6,75,000. Over the nineteenth century, London continued to expand. Its population multiplied fourfold in the 70 years between 1810 and 1880, increasing from 1 million to about 4 millions.

(b) London immersed as the capital town of England. Its geographical location helped a lot in its growth and expansion apart from place of rule during the glorious period of monarchy. It became the centre of democratic government also. Most of the ministers and members of parliament work from the city.

(c) Two reasons:

(i) Migrant Population: The city of London was a powerful magnet for migrant populations, even though it did not have large factories. ‘Nineteenth century London’, says the historian Gareth Stedman Jones, ‘was a city of clerk and shopkeepers, of small master and skilled artisans, of a growing number of semi-skilled and sweated outworkers, of soldiers and servants, of casual labourers, street sellers, and beggars.’

(ii) Industrial Development: Apart from the London dockyards, five major types of industries employed large number: clothing and footwear, wood and furniture, metals and engineering, printing and stationery, and precision products such as surgical instruments, watches, and objects of precious metal. During the First World War (1914-18) London began manufacturing motor cars and electrical goods, and the number of large factories increased until they accounted for nearly one-third of all jobs in the city.

(d) Status:

(i) This city used to rule on several countries of the world during the imperialist and colonial period. London was a great centre of educations and learning in 19th and 20th centuries.

(ii) The people from different countries of the world as well as people of different urban areas of Britain as well as other European cities also settled in this city. We can, find the people of different races, religion, languages, cultures in London.

(iii) London is a beautiful city. It is well planned and having a number of big and grand governmental and private buildings as well as commercial centres and financial institutions. It has attracted very rich people of the world to send their children for higher education and different colleges and universities.

City number two-Bombay:

History: (i) Basically these were seven islands of Bombay which were joined into one landmass only over a period of time.

(ii) In the seventeenth century, Bombay was a group of seven islands under Portuguese control. In 1661, control of the islands passed into British hands after the marriage of Britain’s king Charles II with the Portuguese princess. The East India Company quickly shifted its base from Surat, its principal western port to Bombay.

(iii) At first, Bombay was the major outlet for cotton textiles from Gujarat. Later, in the nineteenth century, the city functioned as a port through which large quantities of raw materials such as cotton and opium would pass. Gradually, it also became an important administrative centre in western India, and then, by the end of the nineteenth century, a major industrial centre.

(iv) The earliest project related with land reclamation in Bombay started in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay. Since then, there have been several reclamation projects.

(v) The need for additional commercial space in the mid-nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies, for the reclamation of more land from the sea.

(vi) Bombay became the capital of the Bombay Presidency in 1819, after the Maratha defeat in the Anglo-Maratha war. The city quickly expanded. With the growth of trade in cotton and opium, large communities of traders and bankers as well as artisans and shopkeepers came to settle in Bombay. The establishment of textile mills led to fresh surge in migration.

(vii) Private companies of Britain became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation Company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar Hills to the end of Colaba.

(viii) Reclamation often meant the levelling of the hills around Bombay. By the 1870s, although most of the private companies closed down due to the mounting cost, the city had expanded to about 22 square miles. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.

(ix) A successful reclamation project was undertaken by the Bombay Port Trust, which built a dry dock between 1914 and 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre Ballard Estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

(x) By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 1,46,000 workers. Only about one-fourth of Bombay’s inhabitants between 1881 and 1931 were born in Bombay: the rest came from outside. Large numbers flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.

(xi) Partnership of Women Workers:

Women formed as much as 23 per cent of the mill workforce in the period between 1919 and 1926. After that, their numbers dropped steadily to less than 10 per cent of the total workforce. By the late 1930s, women’s jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.

(xii) Position of Bombay: Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India till mid of the twentieth century. It was also at the junction head to two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city. For instance, famine in the dry regions of Kutch drove large numbers of people into Bombay in 1888-89. The flood of migrants in some years created panic and alarm in official circles. Worried by the influx of population during the plague epidemic of 1898, district authorities sent about 30,000 people back to their places of origin by 1901.

Status:

(i) Bombay is one of the biggest and most crowded city of India. It is called commercial capital of India. It is a port town having all types of transportation and communication facilities.

Who does not associate Bombay with its film industry? Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a ‘mayapuri’ – a city of wealth.

(ii) Many Bombay films deal with the arrival in the city of new migrants, and their encounters with the real pressures of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city.

(iii) Most of the people in the film industry were themselves migrants who came from cities like Lahore, Calcutta, Madras and contributed to the national character of the industry. Those who came from Lahore, then in Punjab, were especially important for the development of the Hindi film industry. Many famous writers, like Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto, were associated with Hindi cinema.

(iv) Bombay films have contributed in a big way to produce an image of the city as a blend of dream and reality, of slums and star bungalows.

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M. Imp.

(i) Writing of Sociology in India:

Sociological writings in India have often discussed both the contradictory and unintended consequences of colonialism. Comparisons have been made between the industrialisation in the west and the growth of a western middle class with that of the Indian experience.

(ii) Role of Company and British Government: The substitutes offered by the East India Company and subsequently by the British government were land ownership and facilities for education in English. The facts that the first remained unconnected with agricultural productivity and the second with the mainstream of indian cultural traditions amply show that the alternatives were not sufficient in the sense that they could not create any genuine middle class. We know only too well that the zamindars become parasites in land and the graduates job hunters.

(iii) Role of the cities: Cities had a key role in the economic system of empires. Coastal cities such as Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai were favoured. From here primary commodities could be easily exported and manufactured goods could be cheaply imported.

(iv) Position of cities during colonial Rule: Colonial cities were the prime link between the economic centre or core in Britain and periphery or margins in colonised India. Cities in this sense were the concrete expression of global capitalism.

In British India for example, Bombay was planned and re-developed so that by 1900 over three-quarters of India’s raw cotton were shipped through the city. Calcutta exported jute to Dundee while Madras sent coffee, sugar, Indigo dyes and cotton to Britain.

(v) Decline of old cities: Urbanisation in the colonial period saw the decline of some earlier urban centres and the emergence of new colonial cities. Kolkata was one of the first of such cities.

(vi) Birth of Calcutta: In 1690, an English merchant named Job Charnock arranged to lease three villages (named Kolikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti) by the river Hugli in order to set up a trading post. In 1698, Fort William was established by the river for defensive purposes, and a large open area was cleared around the fort for military engagements. The fort and the open area (called Maidan) formed the core of the city that emerged rather rapidly.

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V. Imp.

(i) I live in Delhi. It is the national capital territory of India. Generally it is accepted that approximately. It is as old city of India as epic Mahabharata. During the time of Mahabharata it was called Indraprastha. It had been founded and destroyed at different ages by different people. It is accepted that Tomor Rajput made Delhi their capital after the rulers of Mahabharata age. It remained capital during the Delhi Sultanate period and largest span of time during the Mughal period also. The Britishers made it their capital in 1911. In place of Calcutta. Till date it is capital of India.

It is a centre of administration, foreign developments, head quarters of WHO, centre of trade and commerce as well as a centre of learning.

Delhi attracts visitors and tourists all around the year from different countries and nooks and corners of the world. Its population is increasing leaps and bounds due to several factors — political, economic, social, cultural, religious and so on.

(ii) The following features forced me to think the plane whose I line is a big city and it is not a village or a town.

(a) It is a declared metropolitan city of India. Its population is more than 1.24 crores. It is a very big city as far as area is concerned. There are more than 200 towns and nearly 200 villages within the territory of this city.

(b) It is the head quarter of Central Government of India. Here the President, Prime Minister, and all ministers of Central Government along with nearly more than seven hundred sixty members of parliament and several thousand officials and employees are living. There are several historical places and monuments and there are several temples, mosque, churches and gurudwara.

(c) Delhi is a big centre of commerce and trade. Lacks of traders and merchants come to purchase and sale these goods. Several thousands of people are doing their services in different fields and departments.

(d) There are four-five Universities and one hundred fifty colleges, training institute and academic departments. There is Supreme Court. The highest court of India. There is a High Court as well as several suborbinate courts. Though there is a Vidhan Sabha (State Assembly) but constitutionally it comes under D category of state as per constitutional provision. There is a Municipal Corporation (MCD) along with New Delhi Municipal Corporation (NDMC) along with Chawni Board and several village Panchayats All these local bodies work under state government as well as indirectly instructed or controlled by several ministers and departments. There are many railway stations and junctions along with few very big airports. Generally known as Palam Airport and Indira Gandhi International Airport.

(e) Our all three national festivals i.e., Republic Day, Independence Day and 2nd October or the birthday of M. K. Gandhi, the father of nation is celebrated every year with great pomp and show.

(f) All Ambassador of different countries and diplomats come and reside or have interaction with the highest and biggest leader and official of the country. Delhi is head quarter of all the three Armed forces, i.e., Army, Navy and Air force.

(iii) Yes there are many factories and industrial area in this city where several factories and mills work day and night. In several factories man and women work in shift. It is a great manufacturing of activities or production of goods.

(iv) No, agriculture is not main job of the people in Delhi. Service sector is the main sector of production. People work as officials, government employees, teachers, doctors, nurses, engineers, labourers, traders, property dealer, different types of artisian etc.

(v) Of course the occupational nature that has a determining on the production of this city as well as of the country. Different industry, trade and commercial activities as well as service sector contribute in National Income as well as in reasonably high per Capital Income of the area.

(a) There are very huge multistoreyed as well as very small and big size building in Delhi.

There are big hospitals, nursing homes, schools, colleges, universities. A multistoreyed building of Delhi Development Authority, Railway (Metro) station building can be seen. There are very grand and big five star and other hotels. Place for entertainment such as cinema, exhibition ground, museum, etc.

(b) Delhi having very sufficient availability of educational opportunities, students can get educational facilities from class nursery to twelth standard school. Major students can have academic educational opportunities at degree and post graduate levels in different colleges, universities, training centre. Professional colleges of education, medical science, engineering professional occupation, computers, information technology, etc. are working. There are very good educational distribution which prepare students on a large number IAS/IPS/PCS, etc.

(c) The people live peacefully and in communal harmony. They enjoy their life. Most of them are very hard working. They behave very properly and in cultural manner. People are co-operative. They face different problems such as shortage of water supply, electricity even transport, boldly, bravely with smile.

(d) In Delhi people talk in very effective manner. They generally say hello to their known people and they interact place of their work, parks, gardens, markets, bus stop and even railways and buses.

Most of the Delhi people are very particular for dress. They wear modern as well as traditional dresses. People of many Indian provinces and Union territories can be seen wearing their provincial and local dresses. They speak Hindi, English, Punjabi, Urdu, Tamil, Bangalore, Malayalam, Telgu, Kannar, Nepali, Sindhi and other languages.

(i) Background: The British colonial state had an important role in the way industrialisation and urbanisation took place in India. Here we very briefly touch upon how the independent Indian states played an active role in promoting industrialisation. And in some sense was responding to the impact that colonialism had on the growth of industry in India.

(ii) Factors or Causes:

(a) For Indian nationalists the issue of economic exploitation under colonial rule was a central issue. Images of pre-colonial fabled riches of India contrasted with the poverty of British India.

(b) The Swadeshi movement strengthened loyalty to the national economy.

(c) Modern ideas made people realise that poverty was preventable. Indian nationalists saw rapid industrialisation of the economy as the path towards both growth and social equity.

(iii) Steps for Development:

(a) Development of heavy and machine-making industries, expansion of the public sector and holding of a large co-operative sector were considered very important.

(b) A modern and prosperous India, as visualised by Jawaharlal Nehru, was to be built on an edifice of giant steel plants or gigantic dams and power stations.

(c) Read Nehru’s remarks on the Bhakra Nangal Dam:

Our engineers tell us that probably nowhere else in the world is there a dam as high as this. The work bristles with difficulties and complications. As I walked around the site I thought that these days the biggest temple and mosques and gurdwara is the place where man works for the good of mankind. Which place can be greater than this, this Bhakra Nangal, where thousands and lakhs of men have worked have shed their blood and sweat and laid down their lives as well?

D.

By all above

D.

All the above

A.

North East India

B.

1854

A.

After 1834 to 1920

A.

Economic field

A.

Before the First World War

B.

Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak

A.

Britain

B.

Factories

A.

1911

D.

Delhi

A.

Delhi

C.

All above Mention four cities

D.

All above mention articles

A.

1690

A.

1698

B.

1851

C.

Assam

A.

1938

The advent of colonialism in India produced major upheavals in the economy:

1. Disruptions in production, trade and agriculture eg Handloom, village crafts, etc.
2. After colonization, India became a source of raw materials and agricultural products and a consumer of manufactured goods earlier it was a major supplier of manufactured goods to the world market.
3. British industrialization led to de-industrialization in India.
4. New groups emerged to take advantage of the economic opportunities provided by colonialism.
5. The emergence of new business communities transformed trade, banking, industry etc.

(i) The small scale industries which were estabished in India suffered a heavy loss and the old cities such as Surat, Masulipattam, etc also lost their eminence.
(ii) After the establishment of British imperialism in India, the British industrialization totally received some famous trading centres of India such as Tanjavour, Dhacca and Murshidabad and the workers involved is the handlooms were thrown out Jobless. It was the serious effect of de-industrialisation in this sector in India.

(i) Firstly, there are villages in which a sizeable number of people have sought employment in far-off cities. They live there leaving behind the members of their families in their natal villages. A considerable number of emigrants reside not only in Indian cities but also in overseas towns.
(ii) The second kind of urban impact is to be seen in villages which are situated near an industrial town. When an industrial town like Bhilai comes up in the midst of villages, some villages are totally uprooted while the lands of others are partially acquired. The latter are found to receive an influx of immigrant workers, which not only stimulates a demand for houses and a market inside the village but creates problems of ordering relationships between the native residents and the immigrants.
(iii) The growth of metropolitan cities accounts for the third type of urban impact on the surrounding villages. While a few villages are totally absorbed in the process of expansion, only the land of many others, excluding the inhabited area, is used for urban development.

Following are the changes brought about by colonialism:

1. The magnitude and depth of the structural changes that colonialism made can be suitably understood if we try and realise some basic features of capitalism.
2. British colonialism that was based on capitalist system directly interfered to ensure maximum profit and benefit to British Captialism.
3. The colonial rule changed not just land ownership but even decided what crops should be grown and what should not be.
4. During the colonial period every policy was made towards the strengthening and expansion of British capitalism. It changed the very laws of the land.
5. The British colonialism introduced wide series of changes in every sphere, be it legal or cultural or architectural.
6. The overall changes in the Forest Act changed the lives of pastoralists. Consequently, they were checked from entering many forests.

Colonialism is different from earlier forms of conquest or domination in the following way:

1. The pre-capitalist conquerors benefited from their domination by exacting a continuous flow of tribute. However, they did not interfere with the economic base.They took the tribute that was skimmed off the economic surplus that was produced traditionally in the subjugated regions.
2. Colonialism means the establishment of rule by one country over other. It is the ideology by which a country seeks to conquer and colonise another. The colony becomes a subordinate part of the coloniser's country and is extremely exploited in different ways for the colonising country's gain.
3. The colonialism affects the Indian society in so many ways. It started a new wave of exploitation of the Country's resources.
4. Colonialism introduced a wide array of changes in every sphere. These changes took place in two parts (i) deliberate (ii) intended.

Capitalism is a mode of production based on generalised commodity production or a social system where (a) privately property and the marker have penetrated all sectors, converting everything including labour power into saleable commodity, (b) two main classes are found -   a mass of wage labourers who own nothing but their labour power (their capacity to perform labour) and a class of capitalists who in order to survive as capitalists, must invest their capital and earn ever-increasing profits in a competitive market economy. 

1. The colonial rulers introduced a wide array of changes in every field, be its legal, cultural, social, political, economic or architectural.
2. To facilitate the smooth functioning of its colonial rule, the colonial rulers introduced western education.

Industrialisation is the most powerful factor in growth and development of urbanisation. In countries or continents where industrialisation takes place, most jobs are to be found and new job opportunities are created due to industrialisation in urban areas. Therefore, usually most of the scholars and general people associate urbanisation with industrialisation. They often do occur together but not always so.

1. During the colonial period every policy was made towards the strengthening and expansion of British capitalism. It changed the very laws of the land.
2. The colonial rule changed not just land ownership but even decided what crops should be grown and what should not be.

The colonial laws favoured the owners and managers of the tea industry by adopting the harsh measures against the labourers to make sure they benefited the planters.

1. The coastal cities such as Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai played a pivotal role in the economic system. These colonial cities were the prime link between the economic centre or core in Britain and periphery or margins in colonised India.
2. From these coastal cities primary commodities could be easily exported and manufactured goods could be cheaply imported.

(i) In India, the impact of British industrialisation led to de-industrialisation and decline of old urban centres.
(ii) In India, the initial impact of the British industrialisation led to more people moving into agriculture.

1. Colonialism led to movement of people from one part to another within India. For instance, people from present-day Jharkhand moved to Assam to work on the tea plantations.
2. People were carted in ships from India to work on other colonised lands in distant Asia, Africa and Americas.