Indian Society Chapter 5 Patterns Of Social Inequality And Exclusion

These social institutions are-the family, the caste, the tribe and the market that also form and sustain the society.

Presence of beggars in the streets and public places, children working as domestic servants, construction helpers, cleaners and helpers in Dhabas and tea-shops establish this fact of life in India. Violence against women and prejudice against minority groups are routine affairs in this country and hardly, among us take these events seriously.

It is because we observe them in practice without any change since our birth and the day from which onwards, we began to feel such biased treatment in society.

We do so under presumption that it is outcome of their abstention from hard-work during childhood and adolescence. Had they worked hard, they would have never fallen in the ditch of severe humiliation and insults.

It is so because of social exclusion and inequality. They are not given proper share of income accrued by virtue of their hard work.

As per this economic rule, if all other things are remained equal or constant then personal effort, talent and luck would surely account for all the differences between individuals viz. his share in income accrued, shall increase and he will enjoy higher standard of life as compared to other who doesn't perform as hard labour as he does.

It is because—(i) These are not about individual but about groups Eg. women, S.C., S.T. dalits are groups of individuals (ii) These inequdities are not economic although there is usually a strong line drawn between social and economic inequality Eg. lower class individuals are given mean jobs (iii) They have always a definite pattern or startification.

Unequal share of people in society in terms of three forms of capital or social resources. These are (i) economic capital (viz. income and material assets), (ii) cultural capital (viz. educational qualification and status) and (iii) Social capital (viz. networks of contacts and social associations). In other words, patterns of unequal access to social resources are called social inequality.

If an individual has economic capital (viz. he is from a rich family), he can acquire naturally, the cultural capital (i.e. higher education) and owing to this, he can also acquire social capital.

If someone has social capital (viz. influential relatives and friends) he can get a well paid job (viz economic capital) through their guidance and support.

It refers to a system by which categories of people in a society are ranked in a hierarchy, an order from highest to the lowest i.e. descending order.

(i) It is a society-wide system that unequally distributes social resources among categories of people (ii) It closely links to the family and to the inheritance of social resources from one generation to the next.

(iii) It is supported by patterns of belief or ideology.

It is that of ideology and pre-conceived views. Former is elastic while the latter is rigid. Eg. favouritism or nepotism to ones own caste or group without any evidence or merit and in hidous manner.

It is fixed and inflexible characterisation of a group of people Eg. Sikhs are understood as brave people or martial races.

No, the same individual may both i.e. brave and coward at different times and the same applies equally upon the races. It is not necessary that each individual Sikh will be found brave. Stereotypes refuse to recognise the variation across individuals, contexts or across time.

It refers to actual behaviour of one group of society towards another group or individual. It is seen in practices that disqualified members of one group form opportunities open to others. Eg. refusal of any job on basis of gender or religion.

(i) Social hierarchy or stratification (ii) prejudices (iii) stereotypes (iv) discrimination

Restrictions imposed on individuals or groups from having opportunities open to the majority of the population. Eg. restriction on education, health, transportation, insurance, social security, banking and an access to judiciary. It is involuntary because it is practised not at the will of the person who is so excluded.

No, it is not so. Instead, they do not want to sleep there viz. sleeping there or not is voluntary for them.

No, they don't desire to sleep there but it is social exclusion one way or other that have involuntarily compelled them to sleep on pavements.

The prolong humiliation and discriminatory behaviour from the uppercaste people or who have strong hold on economic, cultural and social capital; generates hate and seethe within them. It is therefore, a reaction to the insults keeps them away from desire for inclusion.

No, laws can do nothing because these also are existed by social acceptance. The prolong practices of customs by society are generally receive the shape of laws. Instead, it is society itself that can produce lasting change. However, in this era of capitalist democracy, it appears impossible in which society itself wants to be governed by coalition wherein each party has its own ideology absolutely different than another. Duality and ambivalence on part of public can bring no changes of permament nature.

(i) Dalit (Harijan or scheduled caste) (ii) Adivasis (Scheduled tribes or tribal) (iii) women and (iv) Differently abled (so far addressed as handicapped, crippled, disabled or mentally retarded)

It is on the ground that caste system is a distinct Indian social institution that legitimises and enforces practices of discrimination against people born into particular castes. These are humiliating, exclusionary and exploitative

These are two in number:(i) classification of people by their occupation and (ii) by their status or rank in the society.

Occupations are divided as per rank of individuals in the social hierarchy. For an example, a Brahmin's son whatever his inborn choices are, he has to involve him in chanting hymns, visiting temples, perform rituals and rites for and on behalf of his clients (Yajmans) etc.

As per scriptual concept, the Brahmans were neither supposed to amass wealth nor were subordinated to the kings and rulers belonging to Ksatriya caste. For instance, even today, we see an Ksatriya individual of eighty, touches feet of eighteen year old brahmin. However, in actual practice, prevailing since ages in the past, there is correlation between social and caste statuses. The high castes were almost of high economic status while the low castes were almost always of low economic status.

The link between caste and occupation is declining rapidly. There hardly any ritual-religious prohibitions are we see on change in occupation. The correlation between caste and economic status has also weakened today as one can find rich and poor people in every caste.

(i) Exclusion (ii) humiliation and subordination and (iii) Exploitation.

These are people kept outside the caste hierarchy consisting of Brahman, Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. Owing to wrong committed by their ancestor in the past they were declared untouchable and since than, the enigma or label of humiliation was stuck to their foreheads. These are outcast individuals still living in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka etc. states.

It is that of extreme type of social exclusion, the untouchables endure with. For instance, they were prohibited from sharing drinking water sources or participating in collective religious worship, social ceremonies and festivals.

They had to take-off caps, carry footwear in the hand, standing with bowed head, not wearing clean or bright clothes.

It is used today while addressing criminals and miscreants in the form of abuses.

It was Harijan (children of God)

It is dalit (viz. downtrodden) and conveys the sense of an oppressed person.

No, neither he coined this term not used but it was implied in his philosophy and the movement for empowerment of these groups. Plousible to mention here that he had raised the stand for minority in Second Round Table Conference and caused Mahatma Gandhi's hunger strike.

It was a radical organisation formed by Dalit groups which had rioted in Mumbai in the early 1970s. This term was used by them in order to assert their identity as part of their struggle for rights and dignity.

That schedule was drawn or list was made by the British Indian Government in 1935 and enforced it through amendment in the Government Of India Act, 1919 (After amendment, Act of 1935).

This addition was made in early 1990s in pursuance with the recommendation of Mandal Commission.  

These denote state's initiative to compensate for past and present caste discrimination. These include reservation of seats in state and central Legislatures, government jobs and educational institution.

It is equal to the percentage share of SC and ST in the total population of India. For example, as per census of 2001, percentage share of scheduled caste were recorded as 16.20% and that of scheduled tribe 8.20% in the total population (1,028,610) of India.

In direct recruitment on all-India basis by open competition, it is 27% while it is 25.84% if recruitment is done on the basis otherwise than open competition. There is no reservation for OBCs in case of promotion.

These are Articles 341 and 342

It is evident from the extract of an article published in Tehelka on 18th February 2006 in which Basharat had mentioned that the youth of Gohana, a town in Haryana had killed in a scuffle, a Jat youth and the entire Jat community had looted and burnt all houses in retaliation as it was reported by Vinod Kumar, presently a Senior Assistant in an insurance company and an inhabitant of that town. They have resettled there—writes Basharat. He again refers to an event when another fellow Sudesh Katara, an Assistant Engineer had gone to attend marriage party of one of his friend but humiliated when some people recognised his being from a dalit family. He appears enthusiast enough to organise a strong protest against such exclusion still prevailing in all over Haryana.

These are neither part of the forward castes nor of Dalits. These are persecuted and excluded people from every religion of Indian society including Hinduism. This is the reason they are addressed as backward. They are economically backward hence, suffering exclusion and discrimination from their respective castes. Thus, OBCs are a much more diverse group than the Dalits or Adivasis.

It was a Commission appointed by Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India in order to look into measure for welfare of the OBCs. It had submitted its report in 1953 CE.

In 1985 CE under chairmanship of B.P. Mandal.

It was decided only when nationwide movement emerged and a number of youth had resorted to immolation, destroyed public property and created chaotic situation all over the country.

Categorisation of OBCs cannot be drawn accurately and with precision because there are two types of OBCs, the one who are largely landed castes and enjoy dominance in rural society in many regions of India while some among them are very poor and disadvantaged much alike Dalits in socioeconomic terms.

These are fields of land holding and political representation viz some among them have large land-holdings like big farms and a number of MPs and MLAs are in the governments.

These are North-Eastern states comprising Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram and Arunanchal Pradesh.

These regions are treasure of minera resources hence, British Indian Government and Indian Union government (viz. government of India) had reserved most forest tracts for their own use i.e. for mining purposes. Moreover, lumbering at commercial level is still carrying on. In these circumstances, their livelihood through food gathering and shifting agriculture has jeopardised considerably.

They are forced to either use the forest illigally or migrate in search of wage labour. In the former attempts, they are being harassed and prosecuted as thieves and encroachers. In both ways, it has been difficult for them to survive any long.

In the name of these policies, government has acquired forest areas (ie. habitat) of tribal communities. A number of mining operations are being conducted there in order to get raw material for industries and more power generation. Tribal people are being displaced without any appropriate compensation and rehabilitation. Thus, these polities are subjugating tribal people and alienating the resources upon which they depended.

The MNCs and corporate firms are now in full liberty to acquire large areas of land by displacing adivasis.

It was coined in the decade of 1930 as part of the struggle against the intrusion by the colonial government and outside settlers as also moneylenders. It is meant by original inhabitants.

These are the people destined for experiences of the loss of forest, the alienation of land and repeated displacement since independence.

It is the attainment of statehood for Jharkhand and Chattisgarh, the former was in Bihar and the latter was in Madhya Pradesh till 2000 CE.

It was protest against their farmlands taken over by a steel company.

The state government in her plan to set-up industries in Adivasi areas had no other options but to acquire their farmlands at any costs. Some land had been sold fey the state to a steel company and it had now become necessary to displace adivasis from that piece of land.

The police did not spared even women and the genitals of men killed in encounter. Perhaps, that was done for the trade in human organs.

It was to give local residents, a petty amount as compensation against their sudden displacement or eviction under compulsory acquisition order and a small proportion of people displaced shall get jobs in industry proposed while all others are compelled to survive by engaging them as wage labourers. It is worth mention that about 75% of total tribals displaced are still waiting their rehabilitation.

It has been estimated that 30 million people i.e. more than the entire population of Canada so far displaced under compulsory land acquisition policy of the government.

These are forests nearby the river Narmada, Singur, Tehri, Hirakud, Koel Karo, Suvarnarekha, Nagarhole, Plachimada etc.

No, these differences are not natural but created by the society. Had it been biological reason or natural difference, a few women would not in positions of public power with efficiency more than men. Secondly, if women were biologically unfit to be inheritors and heads of families, matrilineal societies like the Nairs of Kerala and Khasis of Meghalaya would not be existed.

These were : (i) Their deep pride in glorious traditions of the past culture and (ii) Inspiration they acquired from their study upon the democratic ideals of the modern west.

These leaders were Raja Ram Mohan Roy and M.G. Ranade.

It was launched by Raja Ram Mohan Roy on primises of (i) Humanitatrian view

(ii) Natural rights (iii) Hindu Shastras (scriptures).

These were : (i) The book—“Analogy of Religion and Three Sermons on Human” Nature by Bishop Joseph Butler. (ii) Texts of the Hindu law (iii) Vedic Authorities (Shastras for remarriage of widows.)

Jyotiba Phule was from an oppressed or socially excluded caste in Maharashtra. He questioned the supremacy of Brahmins and the authority of the scriptures. He established Satya Shodhak Samaj and condemned the caste and gender discrimination.

It is all apparent from his works for the Muslim community. He preferred one side girls' education while wished their field confined to the precincts of their homes on the other.

Dayanand Saraswati was no doubt a great scholar who opened separate schools and colleges for girls education but at the same time, he included instructions in curriculum for the arts of housekeeping, religious and ethical principles, handicrafts learning and rearing of children for them. Thus, curriculum for girls was distinct from that for boys. It smells his gender bias-Submit the modern critic.

Tarabai Shinde of Maharashtra and Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain are some women reformers who refer this fact in their writings 'Stree Purush Tulana' and 'Sultana's Dream'. They say a young brahmin widow is sentenced to death by courts if she kills her new born baby but no efforts are made to identify or punish the man who has fathered the baby.

This name has been recently coined by sociologists to reduce the painful experience with people, so far addressed as handicapped, crippled, retarded, lame, blind. They argue that immense ability save as otherwise, certain physical deformities, these people are endowed with; but the social exclusion and inequality generates emotional depression within them, Owing to this, they find themselves unable to explore, realise and manifest their inherent qualities and capabilities.

It tells the painful experience of differently abled person in the state of social exclusion and inequality. The society focuses only on physical deformity in the concerned individual but it has no eyes to see qualities and capabilities inherent to them.

Sociologists understand that these people are made disabled by the social exclusion and inequality otherwise, they can do excel if society provides them proper schooling and chances of gaining employment by proper encouragement and support to their inherent qualities.

It has been seen that malnutrition, mother's weakness due to frequent child birth, lack of immunisation programmes or proper care of pregnant women, accidents in over crowded homes are some reasons that cause disability. Disability has thus, direct nexus with the poverty and conditions of poverty are generated in the circumstance of social exclusion and inequality.

It refers to share of disabled people in census 2001 and asks for collaborative approach for rehabilitation of persons with disabilities comprising involvement of various central government ministeries, state government, UT administrations, members of civil society, organisations of persons with disabilities and non-government organisations. It refers to persons with visual, hearing, speech, locomotor and mental disabilities.

Discourses on issue of the disability and disabled are the least find their place in curriculum drafted and sanctioned for school and colleges and there have been maintained two separate streams i.e. one for disabled students and another for general or normal students.

It is prima-face from the exclusive policy of the Supreme court of India that a disabled person cannot be considered eligible for the post of a judge.

In order to substantiate his plea, the advocate says that court premises are inaccessible to disabled persons. Court complex are preceded by stair cases and none of them has a ramp. Even elevator facility is also limited. As per report from Hindu, 2 August, 2006, condition of city civil court premises is worse where injured, old, disabled people due to accident have to enter there on shoulders of their relatives/friends. One may imagine their emotional breakdown at the moment when even in the house of justice (Ny, y i laya), they see themselves both hapless and helpless.

It has indicated that there are complex groups formed by religion and caste, gender and religion and/or caste and religion suffering social exclusion and inequility owing to rise of controversies and difference in opinion in the principal religion, caste and gender.

Deprived groups : Historically in every society, there are certain groups who are weak and deprived from socio-political-economic or educational points of view. As far as in Indian context, we can say that in Indian society, the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, the other backward classes and women, particularly people from these groups are regarded weak or deprived groups.

Other Backward Classes comprise the untouchables, lower and intermediary castes who were traditionally engaged in agricultural, animal husbandry and handicrafts services. Caste rank and occupation are the main criteria by which they are considered backward. The OBCs are above the so-called untouchable groups and below the twice born castes (i.e. Brahman, Ksathiya and Vaisya).

The OBCs don't constitute a homogenous category. There are many divisions within the overall category. Andre Betteille considers peasants castes as the core of the backward classes. In India, backwardness is viewed as an attribute not of individuals but of communities which are by their nature, self-perpetuating. The other Backward classes are a residual and highly ambiguous category.

Minority is a term which is difficult to define with any degree of precision. It may refer to a relatively small group of people either dominated by or capable of being dominated by a preponderant majority.

The International Encyclopedia of social Sciences defines minority as a group of people differentiated from others in the same society by race, nationality, religion or language who think of themselves as differentiated group and are thought so by others as differentiated group with negative connotations.

The Constitution of India recognises two types of ministers : (a) Minorities based on language and (b) Minorities based on religion.

(i) Reservation policies for SC and STs are directed basically towards the goal of greater equality in society. Its period has been extended time to time by bringing several amendments in Constitution of India.

(ii) OBCs are usually not defined in exactly as SC and STs and in the same proportion in different parts of our country. These are neither part of the forward castes at the upper end of the status spectrum nor of the Dalits at the lower end. But since caste has entered all the major Indian religions and is not confined to Hinduism alone there are also members of other religions who belong to the backward castes and share the same traditional, occupational identification and similar or worse socio-economic status. The most important measures adopted or recommended for their advancement are reservations in the educational institutions particularly in the technical and profesional colleges and government service.

The Dalits (or the Harijan) and Adivasis have been the victims of active social discrimination through segregation in the first case and isolation in the second. The same cannot be said to be true of OBCs. Forced incorporation of tribal communities into mainstream processes has had certain changes in tribal identity. Their identity is formed by interactional process rather than any premordial (original) characteristics peculiar to tribes. Some tribal states have been declared as disturbed area Eg Manipur or Nagaland.

The scheduled tribes have been specified by Presidential Orders issued under the provisions of Article 341 and 342 of the Constitution. The Constitution of India does not define the scheduled tribes. They have been specified by the Presidential orders issued in consultation with the governors of the respective states. The development of the scheduled tribes is new being looked after by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs which was created on 13 october, 1999. As per 2001 census, there is 8.43 crores population of STs viz 8.2% of total population of India. The term Scheduled Tribes is defined in Article 366 (25) of the Constitution of India as—“Such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be scheduled tribes for the purposes of this Constitution'. The procedure for recognition of STs is enshrined in Article 342. The criteria generally adopted for specification of a community as a scheduled tribe are— (a) Primitive Traits (b) Distinctive culture (c) Shyness of contact with public at large (d) Geographical isolation. These are well established in the 1931's census, Kalelkar Committee report of 1955, Lokur Committee of 1965 and in Chanda Committee of 1969 CE.There are 600 tribes as notified under Article 342 of the Constitution of India spread over different states and UTs of the country. It is worth noting that no community has been specified as a schduled tribe in relation to the states of Haryana and Punjab and the UTs of Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry.

The Sixth Schedule under Article 244 of the Constitution identifies the North Kachar Hills, the Karbi-Anglong, the Bodo Land Territorial area districts in Assam, the Khasi Hills, the Jaintia Hills, The Garo Hills districts in Meghalaya, Tripura Tribal Areas district in Tripura and the Chakma, the Mara and the Lai districts in Mizoram as autonomous districts in tribal areas. District councils/regional councils look after administration of these areas. These are elected bodies and have powers of legislation, administration of justice apart from executive, developmental and financial responsibilities.

A person who claims to belong to a ST by birth has to verify—(a) That he/she and his/her parents actually belong to the community claimed (6) That the community is included in the Presidential Order specifying the ST in relation to the concerned state. (c) That the person belongs to that state and to the area within that state in respect of which the community has been scheduled (d) He may profess any religion (e) He on his parents/grand parents etc. should be permanent resident of the state/UT on the date of notification of the Presidential Order applicable in his case (g) But he cannot be treated as such in relation to the place of his temporary residence notwithstanding the fact that the name of his tribe has been scheduled in respect of that state where he is temporarily settled in any Presidential Order (h) In case of person born after the date of notification of the relevant Presidential Order, the place of residence for the purpose of acquring ST status, is the place of permanent abode of their parents at the time of the notification of the Presidential Order under which they claim to belong to such a tribe.

Scheduled caste is a political term coined by the Simon Commission appointed by the British Government in 1927 CE and then incorporated in the government of India Act, 1935. During post-independence period, it was adopted by Constitution of India for the purpose of prowiding them some special privileges under compensatory discrimination policy.

Condition in Society : Scheduled castes people are still facing a number of problems in social hierarchy of India. A majority of dalits are poor, deprived of basic needs and socially backward. Many people of Dalit groups do not have access to sufficient food, health care, housing and clothing. Moreover, caste inequalities continue to be among the most important factors affecting their access to education.

Institutional schemes for welfare : Welfare of SC is high on the agenda of the government. As per 2001 census, their population is 16.66 crore i.e. 16.23 percent of the country's total population i.e. 102.64 crore. Persons belonging to this schedule are regarded socially, educatinally and economically backward sections in the society.

Government of India has constitutional a National commitee for SCs and safai Karam-charis and passed Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 and the Scheduled Castes And Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Scholarship pre-matric and matric, Hostel facilities, National overseas scholarship etc. are provided to SCs children.

Its a situation in which individuals may become cut-off from full involvement in the wider society. It is not accidental but systematic and an outcome of social hierarchy in India. A man is either denied of essential goods and services like education, health, transporation, insurance, social security, banking etc. by society or owing to continuous he himself tries to live aloof from these humiliations, facilities that other section of society are availing in abundance.

The factors bringing in social exclusion are-the varna alias caste systems, economic status, occupation, race etc. Social exclusion is voluntary viz. the person excluded does not wish living aloof from society and the good and services. Instead, it is imposed by the society concerned. It is said that the excluded group itself does not want to participate in the society, but it is absolutely false as we see, dalits also want to visit temples, do worship and share in cultural activities, drink water from the public well or reservoir but prolonged humiliation has made them reluctant even if, law stands for their support and nobody in the society can resist them however, it is true that whenever any adversity befalls in so-called upper-class settlements, instead of extending and help, they always try to escape as if nothing has happened. It is apathy that develops left the fort of unity and integration.

No doubt, untouchability has been abolished and there are stringent laws drafted for protection of people excluded from the mainstream but compliance with them is made only under fear of punishment. It's not an acceptance of laws of the land with free consent. This is the reason, social exclusion is still practises in several states of the country. We would like to reproduce have an averment of Narayanamma, from Anantpur municipality in Andhra Pradesh as under :

'It is though we do not have a name I think so when they call me 'Ai municipality come, clean this'. often they cover their noses when we walk past, as though we smell. We have to wait until someone turns on a municipal tap, or works a hand-pump when we fill water, so that these are not polluted by our touch (source-mander 2001 P. 38-39).

(i) Individual inequality is seen as difference in age, intellectual powers and physical power and in physical appearance e.g. white or dark complexion while social inequality is seen in the form of caste system, race, profession/ avocation, rituals, culture, language etc.

(ii) Individual inequality is natural while social inequality is artificial and due to certain hierarchy and kinship.

(iii) Individual inequality can be removed when so desired by an individual. For an instance, today’s dull student can become tomorrow’s intelligent if he would concentrate him in study. However, social inequality cannot be removed as it is ascriptive since birth of individual.

(iv) Individual inequality acts as distinct part of a machine that produces a certain object/product through its proportionate participation. In other words, it is phenomenon of individual difference that runs smoothly an organisation, institution by recruiting individuals of distinct abilities and expertise.

The social inequality sows the seeds of separatism, malice and enmity. Communal riots, conflicts and even massacre are the result of social inequalities.

(v) Individual inequality establishes harmony, reconciliation and oneness in the society while social inequalities end in conflicts and differences at physical, mental and emotional levels of individuals. Thus, all round growth of individual is retarded and choked in seethe and emotional disbalance.

Features of social stratification:

(i) Social stratification is a society-wide system that unequally distributes social resources among categories of people.

(ii) It is closely linked to the family and to the inheritance of social resources from one generation to the next.

(iii) It is supposed by patterns of belief or ideology.

In activities like hunting and food gathering, little is produced therefore, there exists rudimentary stratification but in technologically advanced socities, advance system of stratification is seen. Here, social resources are unequally distributed among categories of people. Secondly, it is birth that dictates birth occupational opportunities. For example, a dalit is likely to confined to occupations like agriculture labour, scavenging etc. and there are little chances of his being able to get white-collar jobs or professional work. Thirdly, caste system is justified in terms of opposition of purity and pollution. Nobody thinks a system of inequality as legitimate but people with the greatest social privileges like Brahmans express the strongest support for caste and race.

It is an interesting fact that discrimination has the least bearing with economical status and it is more because of gender, religion, ethnicity, language, caste and disability.

Eg. A women from a privileged background may face sexual harrassment.

Distriction between opinion or belief

Opinion or belief

(i) opinion or belief is formed on the basis of things seen and experienced.

(ii) Brahmans are believed to be superior as practically, it is seen that they are honoured by the society.

(iii) Opinion or beliefs are changeable and amenable when red-proofs for any subject/thing/ topic are produced or by virtue of introspection really comes out.

(iv) Formantion of belief has a certain process and it accepts persons or things after prolong investigation and observation.

Prejudice :

(i) It is pre-judgement without any familiarity with the subject / thing.

(ii) Seeing a man in Dhoti and Tilak and just understanding him a Brahmin is prejudice. He may be a Ksatriya or Vaisya also or even a Chinese too.

(iii) Prejudices being pre-conceived views based on hearsay are neither amenable nor introspection is done to understand reality.

(iv) Prejudices are phenomenon of a frickle mind and denote lack of sensitivity or intelligence.

It is a kind of autism at an individual level. In this state of disposition, an individual may become cut off from full involvement in the wider society. In other times, it is society that prevents individuals or groups from having opportunities which are open to the majority of the population at any regions. Such restrictions are imposed on an access of individuals or groups to services like education, health, transportation, insurance, social security, banking and police or judiciary. For an example, it is not desirable that rich people would sleep on pavement, but when a poor individual wants to join the concert in company of rich people, he is prevented. It is social exclusion always involuntary. Another example can be given from prolong experience of humiliation that is reacted by certain individuals through permanent self-restraint or check to see even the faces of those people or their larger group. Prolong resistance on entry of lower castes in temples by Hindu community inspires them either to opt for conversion to other religions like Christianity or Islam or build their own temples.

Relationship between caste and economic inequality : Caste inequality is directly associated with the economic status and occupation as it is evident from ancient history. Eg. If someone has bom in the family of carpenter, he would have to join the same occupation when he is grown-up. As per scriptural approach however, social and economic statuses are taken differently in caste hierarchy. For example, Brahmans were not supposed to amass Wealth and live under mercy of rulers. Contrary to it, these rulers were subordinated to the social status of Brahmans. However, there was seen correlation between social and economic status in practice. Eg. Higher castes were invariably of higher economic status while lower castes were always witnessed lower in economic status. In modem age, this correlation is getting weaker as we see rich and poor people are equally found in every caste. Distinctions between castes of similar social and economic status have now weakened. However these are still existed between different socio-economic groupings. The distinction between privileged (upper caste and higher economic status) and disadvantaged sections of society (lower caste & lower economic status) are still existed as before. This is because a lower caste individual tends to adopt purgation or purification procedure of Hindu community when his economic status is increased as there are no restriction now existed upon changing of one's occupation.

It is the severe exclusion and discrimination of society practised against members of castes located at the bottom of the purity-pollution scale. They are not allowed even to touch the people falling in caste-hierarchy (Viz. Brahman, Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra). They are severly punished if eventually they are touched with members of all other castes and whosoever has been touched, would have go through elaborate purification rituals. In South India, notion of distant pollution or pollution due to shadow or merely vision/sight of an untouchable is still prevailing. Institution of untouchability thus, refers not just to the avoidance or prohibition of physical contact but to a much broader set of social sanctions.

(i) Schedules listing the castes and tribes recognised as deserving of special treatment were drawn in 1935 by the British Government.

(ii) Some policies continued during postindependence period by enlisting them in Constitution of India. One more category of Other Backward Classes (OBC) has been added to the special programes since 1985 CE.

(iii) As per these policies reservations of seats in schools, colleges, government services, state and central legislatures are made. The proportion of reserved seats is equal to the percentage share of the Scheduled castes and tribes in the total population. However, proportion of OBC is decided differently.

(iv) Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850 CE and Constitution Amendment (Ninety Third Amendment) Act of 2005 enforced w.e.f. 23rd January 2006 are related to education. The former allows entry of Dalits to government schools while the latter introduces reservation for OBC in institution of higher education. Other Acts are – S.C. and S.T. (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, Article 17 of Constitution.

(i) OBC’s are not any particular group like SC and ST but individuals from all communities whose standard of living is below poverty line.

(ii) OBC’s have been scheduled in constitution of India through 93rd Amendment w.e.f 2006 and these classes are recognised since the early 1990s. Such is not in case of SC and ST who have been recognised by Government Of India Act, 1935 during colonial India.

(iii) There is a tough procedure for OBC candidate to establish him in this category while SC and ST’s are unconditionally recognised.

(iv) The proportion of reserved seats is equal to the percentage share of the scheduled castes and tribes in the total population but for OBCs this proportion is decided differently.

Issues of concern to adivasi's :

(i) Development plans during postindependence period had displaced Advasis from their natural habitat i.e. forest but nothing has been done so far for their rehabilitation.

(ii) The so-called traders and industrialists have trickily upsurped their lands, increased the trend of consumption among them but being resourceless they find themselves in helpless position.

(iii) Tribal identity has got mixed with Hindu society and culture therefore, boundaries between tribe and castes have become porous. In brief, they have lost their specific identity.

(iv) Adivasi population in India is widely dispersed. About 85% of the tribal population lives in middle India viz. Gujarat and Rajasthan in the West, West Bengal and Orissa in the East and in the Centre places of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and parts of Mahrashtra and Andhra Pradesh. They are only concentrated in North-Eastern states like Tripura, Meghalaya and Nagaland. Being so dispersed, they can not organise themselves properly.

(v) Economic and social conditions of the Advasis in North-Eastern states is much worse than those of other-tribals.

(vi) Being dispersed population, it is difficult to collect proper data and implement schemes for their development.

(vii) The projects like Sardar Sarover Dam on the river Narmada in western India and the Polavaram Dam on the river Godavari in Andhra Pradesh are in progress and it is estimated that several lakh adivasis are going to lost their habitat and source of survival. Economic liberalisation policies have made it easier for corporate firms to acquire large areas of land by displacing adivasis.

(viii) As per the people’s unit for civil liberties report on the Kalinganagar corissan incident refers how brutally the police attached on Adivasis, peacefully demonstrating against the takeover of their farm lands by a Steel Company. Thus, in the name of development policy, adivasis are being displaced frequently from all regions of the country. It has been estimated that since independence in 1947, about 30 million people have been displaced by this land acqusiton policy and 75 percent of displaced people. are still awaiting their rehabilitation. Kalinga nagar area was bought by a Steel Company from the state government in November, 2005 and therefore, police was ordered to ensure eviction of adivasis on 2 January, 2006 in which more than twelve adivasis were shot down dead and many more injured. It is stated that the corpse genitals and breasts (women corpses) were found mutilated when bodies were returned to their families. Perhaps that was done for the trade of human organs - the report clarifies.

Issues over History of women’s movement - Taken up today

(i) Social reformers like Dayanand Saraswati and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan were also being men, they did not take up the women issues properly. Todays women movements refute their stand that recommands - education for girl but their area of activities confined within precincts of their homes (Sir Syed Ahmed Khan) and - curriculum comprising instruction to girls in religious principles, training in the arts of house keeping and handicrafts and rearing of children (Dayanand Saraswati). It is stated that those reform were not right in favouring girl’s education at one hand while limitations on the other.

(ii) It is often assumed that so far the social reform for women’s rights was entirely fought for by male reformers who could not able to interpret ideas of women’s equality in full and absolute manner.

(iii) Women’s movements are intended to establish a matriarchal state in which inversion of role is demanded as per Sultana’s Dream (1950 CE). This short story imagines a lady land where men live in veils and perform domestic or household chores (i.e. kitchen duty, rearing children etc.). She imagines the state will become free from sin and crimes if matriarchal system is established.

(iv) Stree Purush Tulna, written by Tarabai Shinde condemns in harsh words the double standards of a male dominated society. It has dissected male malaise for females and put on table, the viruses so far introduced in their head and hearts.

(v) These women movements disclose the stark reality that the inequalities between man and women are social rather than natural. They substantiate this plea by saying irrespective of less numbers, women are in position of public power hence, those are capable to shoulder responsibilities better than men. However, gender bias resists them at each step. Moreover, they place example of matrilineal societies of Kerala (the Nairs) and Meghalaya (the Khasis), African societies where women are successful traders in order to establish the fact that it is society which has generated inequality and exclusion in case of women much alike the caste and class.

Disability is equally social and physical thing:

(i) Combined effect of social perception/idea and physical handicaps make the concerned individual a differently abled person. It is a good term to address these people instead of handicapped, crippled, retarded, Bechera (a poor thing) etc.

(ii) The neglect of society makes the individual emotionally breakdown.

(iii) The society is understood disability as biologically given. is society that seen disabled person as a victim and his destiny as the culprit.

(v) Society supposes disability as disabled individual’s self-perception. Thus, he is neglected.

(vi) Society takes as granted the disabled in need of help and he is addressed as Bechara (a poor and helples thing).
On the basis of above points and pleas, we can confirmly state that disability is as much as a social as a physical thing. Moreover, better it would be if we say social perception and assumption for physically disabled individuals is several time more disastrous and repressive than in terms of physical disability.

Key principles of social stratification :

1. Social Stratification is a characteristic of society, not simply a functions of individual differences.
2. Social stratification remains over generations. Persons social position is ascribed. It means children assume the social position of their parents. The ascribed part of social inequality is reinforced by the practice of endogamy.
3. social stratification is supported by the patterns of belief, or ideology. In this sense, no system of social stratification is likely to remain over generations unless it is generally understood as being either fair or necessary.

The term 'Dalits' literally means downtrodden, poor and oppressed persons. It refers to those who have been broken, ground down by those above them in a deliberate way.

 The initiatives taken by the State to abolish caste discrimination are as under:
1. The most important state initiative for caste discrimination is the one popularly known as ‘reservations’. This involves the setting aside of some places or ‘seats’ for members of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes in different spheres of public life.
2. One of them is reservation of seats in the State and Central legislatures (i.e., state assemblies, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha); reservation of jobs in government service across all departments and public sector companies; and reservation of seats in educational institutions
3. There have been a number of laws passed to end, prohibit and punish caste discrimination, specially untouchability. One of the earliest such laws was the Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850, which disallowed the curtailment of rights of citizens due solely to change of religion or caste.
4. The Constitution abolished untouchability (Article 17) and introduced the reservation provisions mentioned above. The 1989 Prevention of Atrocities Act revised and strengthened the legal provisions punishing acts of violence or humiliation against Dalits and Adivasis.

The three forms of capital on which social inequality is based are:
(i)  Economic Capital: It can be divided in the form of material assets and income.
(ii) Cultural Capital: It consists of educational qualifications and status.
(iii) Social Capital: It is in the form of networks of contacts and social associations.

Major issues of Adivasi struggles after Independence:

1. The Independence of India in 1947 should have made life easier for Adivasis but this was not the case. One, the government monopoly over forests continued. However, the exploitation of forests accelerated.
2. The policy of capital-intensive industrialisation adopted by the Indian government required mineral resources and power-generation capacities which were concentrated in Adivasi areas.
3. Adivasi lands were rapidly acquired for new mining and dam projects. In the process, millions of Adivasis were displaced without any appropriate compensation or rehabilitation.
4. Adivasi shared a common hatred of outsiders ('dikus') who had settled in the region. They grabbed its wealth which impoverished the original residents. Maximum benefits from the mining and industrial projects in themineral rich regions had gone todikus. Adivasis were concentrated in contiguous areas and could demand states of their own.

'Beggar' means free labour. This practice was prevalent in several parts of northern India. Under this practice members of low ranked caste groups had to provide labour for a fixed number of days per year to the village zamindar or landlord.

1. There were a large number of women’s organisations that arose both at all India and local levels in the early twentieth century. And then began the participation of women in the national movement itself.

2. In 1931, the Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress issued a declaration on the Fundamental Rights of Citizenship in India whereby it committed itself to women’s equlality.

3. The attempt to reform society, religion status of women was done by Raja Rammohan Roy in Bengal. He started the campaign against 'Sati' that was the first women's issue to receive public attention.

4. All citizens are equal before the law, irrespective of religion, caste, creed or sex. Women shall have the right to vote, to represent and the right to hold public offices.

5. Jotiba Phule came from a socially excluded caste and his attack was directed against both caste and gender discrimination. He founded the Satyashodak Samaj with its primary emphasis on “truth seeking”. Phule’s first practical social reform efforts were to aid the two groups considered lowest in traditional Brahmin culture: women and untouchables.

6.  

   Tarabai Shinde, a Maharashtrian housewife, wrote 'Stree Purush Tulana as a protest against the double standards of a male-dominated society. The burning issues were-the rape of women in police custody, dowry murders and gender injustices etc.

Following are the key principles to explain the concept of social stratification:

1. Social stratification is a characteristic of society, not simply a function of individual differences. Social stratification is a society-wide system that unequally distributes social resources among categories of people. However, social resources are unequally distributed to various social categories regardless of people’s innate individual abilities.

2. Social stratification persists over generations. It is closely linked to the family and to the inheritance of social resources from one generation to the next. A person’s social position is ascribed. That is, children assume the social positions of their parents. The ascribed aspect of social inequality is reinforced by the practice of endogamy.

3. Social stratification is supported by patterns of belief, or ideology. No system of social stratification is likely to persist over generations unless it is generally understood as being either fair or necessary. The caste system, for example, is justified in terms of the opposition of purity and pollution. The ascribed type of social inequality with the Brahmins designated as the most superior and Dalits as the most inferior by virtue of their birth and occupation. Typically, people with the greatest social privileges express the strongest support for systems of stratification such as caste and race.

The term 'untouchability' is a social practice within the caste system in which members of the lowest caste are considered to be ritually impure to such an extent that they can cause pollution by mere touch. Untouchable castes are at the bottoms of the hierarchical system.

1. Social inequality is different from inequality of individuals because of their varying abilities and efforts. Someone may be endowed with exceptional intelligence or may have worked very hard to go their wealth and status.
2. Social inequality is not the outcome of innate or natural differences but is produced by the society in which the live.

The significance of Dalit:
(i) It has become the generally accepted term for referring to the untouchables by the ex-untouchable communities and their leaders.
(ii) In Indian languages, the term Dalit literally means 'downtrodden' and conveys the sense of an oppressed people.

(i) Social exclusion refers to ways in which individuals are cut off from full involvement in the wider society.
(ii) It is involuntary as it is practised regardless of the wishes of those who are excluded.
(iii) Rich people are never found sleeping on the pavements but poor people in cities and towns often do. Rich are not being excluded from access to pavements but they choose not to sleep there.
(iv) Prolonged experience of discriminatory or insulting behavior often produces a reaction on the part of the excluded who then stop trying for inclusion. Example- 'Upper' caste communities have often denied entry into temple for the 'lower' castes, especially Dalits. 

1. All over the world there have been people who are differently abled. Disability is understood as biological given.
2. Whenever confronted with problems, it is taken for granted that the problem originates from their impairment.
3. Now a days terms as 'mentally challenged'/visually impaired and 'physically compared' are being used to replace the more trite negative terms such as 'retarded', 'crippled' or 'lame'. The 'disabled' are caused disabled not because they are biologically disabled but society causes them so.
4. The social construction of disability has a different dimension. We find a close relationship between disability and poverty, malnutrition, mothers weakened by frequent childbirth, insufficient immunisation programmes, accidents in overpopulated homes. Undoubtedly, disabled people are among the poorest in the poor countries.

Social exclusion refers to ways in which individuals may become cut off from full involvement in the wider society. It focuses attention on a broad range of factors that prevent individuals or groups from having opportunities open to the majority of the population.

It is often assumed that social reform for women’s rights was entirely fought for by male reformers and that ideas of women’s equality are alien imports. But we got to know that all these assumptions were wrong when we read this book 'Stree Purush Tulana' (or Comparison of Men and Women) which was written by a Maharashtrian housewife, Tarabai Shinde. This book highlights the double standards of a male-dominated society. The book explains how a young Brahmin widow was sentenced to death by the courts for killing her newborn baby who was illegitimate however, no effort was made to identify or punish the man who had fathered the baby. This book created quite a stir when it was published.

1. At the state level, there are special programmes for Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes. Because of massive discrimination practiced against them, the special provision have been made for them.
2. The OBCs have also been added to the special programmes since the early 1990s. Through the scheme of 'reservations' - the state is attempting to compensate for past and present discrimination.
3. The most important state initiative attempting to compensate for past and present caste discrimination is the one popularly known as ‘reservations’. It involves setting aside of some 'seats' for members of SCs, STs and OBCs. 
4. A number of laws have been passed to end, prohibit and punish Caste discrimination, specially untouchability. One of the most recent laws is the 93rd amendment to the constitution which came into force on 23rd January,2006.
5. The Constitution abolished untouchability (Article 17) and introduced the reservation provisions.
6. The 1989 Prevention of Atrocities Act revised and strengthened the legal provisions punishing acts of violence or humiliation against Dalits and Adivasis.

There is a close relationship between disability and poverty. Malnutrition, mothers weakened by frequent childbirth, inadequate immunisation programmes, accidents in overcrowded homes, all contribute to an incidence of disability among poor people that is higher than among people living in easier circumstances. Furthermore, disability creates and exacerbates poverty by increasing isolation and economic strain.