Indian Society Chapter 2 The Demographic Structure Of The Indian Society

It is a systematic study of population. The term demography is composed of two Greek words, i.e. demos (people) and graphein (describe) viz. describing number of people in a specified time-period in a territory/location or simply, description of people. It studies changes in—(i) Population size, (ii) Patterns of births, (iii) Deaths, (iv) Migration, (v) Structure and composition of the population E.g. relative proportion of women, men and different age groups.

Mainly two varieties—(i) Formal demography (ii) Social demography.

The formal demography studies statistics or quantitative field and social demography focuses on the social, economic or political aspects of population.

These are census and surveys. These correct data in a systematic way on the people residing within a specified territory.

We can derive its origin since formation of nation-states in Europe during the later half of the eighteenth century. All activities performed by nation states like that of development of early forms of public health management, policing, maintaining of law and order, economic policies relating to agriculture and industry, taxation and reverse generation and governance of cities could possible with the help of demography i.e. systematic calculation/study of population. It is therefore, modern science of statistics.

It was with the American census of 1790 CE.

It was between 1867-62 CE by the British Indian government.

Since 1881 CE.

(i) Implementation of state policies (ii) Economic development and general public welfare.

Mr. Durkheim had explained wide variations in suicide rates across different countries and suggested that enumeration of death rate or rate of suicide (i.e. number of suicides per 100,000 population) had to be explained by social causes even though each particular instance of suicide may have involved reasons specific to that individual or his/her circumstances in order to arrive at true data.

It is because formal demography measures and does analysis of the components of population change mathematically for forecasting population growth and changes in the composition of population. Social Demography on the other hand, enquires into the wide causes and consequences.

These problems are of above population 
(i) Unemployment (ii) Poverty (iii) low quality of life (iv) Crimes (v) Juvenile delinquency and (vi) Suicides and several other problems.

Thomas Robert Malthus was the English political economist. He studied at Cambridge and trained to become a Christian priest. He rendered his services as professor of History and Political economy to East India Company College at Haileybury near London and educated the officers who were recruited to the Indian civil service.

He accepts power of population superior to the power of the earth that provides subsistence for man. He understands epidemics, pestilence and plague necessary to remove imbalance between food supply and increasing population. He says, the vices of mankinds themselves are active and able ministers of depopulation.

(i) Human population and means of subsistence tend to grow.

(ii) Human population tends to grow much faster rate than means of subsistance (i.e food, clothing and other agro-products).

(iii) As growth of agricultural products is lower, it is surpassed by population growth besetting poverty.

(iv) Control on the growth of population is must for bringing in prosperity.

(v) The positive checks (i.e famine, pestilence, epidemics) restore the balance between food supply and faster increase in population.

The pattern of population growth was changed dramatically because birth rates had declined and outbreaks of epidemic diseases were controlled yet trend of food production and standards of living rose continuously.

These scholars argued that an unequal distribution of income and wealth or economic resources are responsible factors that cause poverty and starvation. Population growth has the least effect on impoverish conditions. It is an unjust social system that allows handful people luxurious living while the vast majority of people are forced to live in poverty.

It propounds that population growth is linked to overall levels of economic development and every society follows a typical pattern of development related population growth.

(i) The first stage is low population growth in an underdeveloped and technologically backward society.

(ii) In second stage, birth rate and death rate being very high the net growth rate remains low.

(iii) In third stage, birth and death rate are reduced hence, growth rate remains low in a developed society.

The stage between second and third stage is a transitional stage of movement from a backward to an advanced stage and here the growth of population is found the highest. It is called population explosion.

It is because society takes longer time to adjust to change and alter its reproductive behaviour to suit the new situation of relative prosperity and longer life spans.

Demographic concepts are that of birth rate, death rate, infant mortality rate, fertility rate etc. These are expressed with two numbers. The one is the particular statistic enumerated for a specific geographical administrative unit (i.e. a state, country, district or other territorial unit). Another number provides a standard for comparison {i.e., total number or birth of death of people in a year divided by the total population of that area in thousands).

It is the difference between the birth rate and the death rate.

Trend of growth of population in India

Saudi Arabia (3.4%), India (1.8%), Mexico (3.6%) and Kenya (5.5%)

It is because here are more number of young individuals falling in age group below 14 years.

It is the feeding capacity of an environment of an ecosystem for the popular of a species under the existing set of conditions. It represents the level high which no major increase in populative size can occur. At this level, popular has zero grown rate and stabilises itself. The carrying capacity of the earth for human population is about 8 to 15 billion.

In order to make the students aware of
(i) the consequences of uncontrolled population growth.

(ii) The advantages of small family norm.

(iii) The growth, distribution and density of population.

(iv) The relationship between the population to the standard of life and—

(v) Methods of control of human population growth.

Total number of individual in a particular area at a given time (i.e. decennial). For an instance, India's population size was 843.9 millions in the year 1991 while in was 1027.015 millions in the year 2001.

The number of individuals per unit area or volume. It can be calculated as

P.D. = N/S (where N = Number of people in a region)

S = Number of unit areas in a region

According to 1991 census, population density of India was 267 person/square km. while it was 324 person/sq.km. in 2001.

It is the rate of growth required for new generations to replace the older ones that are dying out.

It is called when fertility levels of societies are below the replacement rate. E.g. single child of a couple indicates negative growth rate because it can not replace the two persons i.e. mother and father.

The number of live birth's per 1000 women in the child-bearing age group (i.e. 15 to 49 years) is fertility rate.

It is a rough average for an entire population and does not take in account the differences across age groups.

The average number of births to a cohort of women upto the end of the reproductive age period which is estimated on the basis of the age-specific rates observed during a given period.

The number of deaths of babies before the age of one year per 1000 live births is called the infant mortality rate.

The number of women who die in child birth per 1000 live births is called the maternal mortality rate.

It refers to the estimated number of years that an average person is expected to survive. It is calculated on the basis of data on age-specific death rates in a given area over a period of time.

It is the proportion of persons in different age groups (Generally that of 0-14 years, 15 to 64 years and 64 + years) relative to the total population. It changes in response to changes in levels of development and the average life expectancy.

Smaller proportions of the population are found in the younger age groups (i.e. 0-4 years, 05 to 09 years and 10 to 19 years) and larger proportions in the older age groups (i.e. 60-64, 65-69, 70-74, 75-79 and 80 + years)

It is a means comparing the portion of a population which is composed of dependents (i.e. age groups 0-14 years and 60 + years) with the proportion in the working age group (i.e. 15 to 64 years).

A fall in dependency ratio or benefit flowing from changing age structure.

It is because the large pool of working age people today will turn shortly into non-working old people.

The Population of India and its growth during the 20th century.

It refers to a sudden increase in the rate at which a disease affects the people of a given geographic area at a specific time. Its incidence rate is higher than the normal rate. This Greek word is meant by “Upon the people.”.

When a disease has a high but constant rate of incidence in a specific geographical area, it is called endemic. There is no sudden increase in the incidence of this disease.

An endemic not confined to a given geographical area but is more widespread (i.e. at a national, international or even global level) is called a pendemic Eg. Spanish flu of 1918-19 CE.

It killed within six months about 6.75 lakh population in USA, 2 lakh in Britain, 4 lakh in France, country side in Alaska and Southern Africa entirely perished. In Australia, it took a toll of ten thousand people, in Fiji Islands 14% of the population, 22% population in Samoa, 17 million people in India and 22% soldiers of British Indian Army. Thus, 2.5-5% of the human population with 20% or 40 million people in the world population suffered form that disease.

These were Asian influenza of 1957 CE and Hongkong influenza of 1968 CE.

It is a viral disease or infection. Its virus attacks mainly at the upper respiratory tract viz. the nose, throat and bronche and sometimes, the lungs. It is capable to make genetic changes and thus, keeps its genes immune to existing vaccines.

The AIDS had killed 25 million people in its first twenty five years while it is capable to kill the same number of population within six months or twenty five weeks.

It is because famines may also cause by a failure of entitlements or inability of people to buy or otherwise obtain food. A number of people in the world die of hunger and starvation due to poverty.

A Pie-chart showing regional (Statewise) share of projected populated growth upto 2026 in India.

As per data available from the census of 2001, sex-ratios at the state level offer even greater cause for worry. We see in the following map that as many as six states and territories have a child sex ratio of under 900 females per 1000 males in Punjab is the worst off with an incredibly low child sex ratio of 753 i.e. the only state below 800). It is followed by Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh. The states like Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra are under 925 while Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Orissa are about the national average of 927 but below the 980 mark. Even Kerala, with the best overall sex ratio does not do too well at 969 while the highest child sex ratio of 986 is found in Sikkim.

Reasons for this sharp decline in child sex ratio are according to demographers and sociologists as under—

(i) Neglect of girl babies in infancy leads to higher death rates.

(ii) Killing of girl babies due to religious or cultural beliefs.

Evidences—(a) Development of Ultra Sound technology i.e., Sonogram by which the sex of unborn baby can be determined in the early stages of pregnancy.

(b) It is not the cause of poverty that compels people to adopt selective abortion of female foetuses as we see the most prosponds regions like Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Gujarat and Maharashtra are the states with the lowest child sex ratio.

(c) Economically prosperous families decide to have one or two children hence, they wish to choose the sex of their child through sonogram (i.e. an X-ray like diagnostic device).

Child (0-6 years) sex ratio in India

(i) It is because prior to that decade it was generally believed that in this age group sex ratio runs always higher hence, this ratio was not recorded upto the decade of 1961 CE.

(ii) Perhaps, due of globalisation of economy, MNCs entered in India and opened their offices as also B.P.O segments here since 1990 onwards and females got bumper opportunities for employment in them. Thus, atrocities upon women were reduced to minimum. Moreover, certain legislations like Indian Succesion (Amendment) Acts were passed, women's participation in legislative assemblies and Parliament advocated during that phase of time. The communicative effect of these activities was enumerated and observed in 2001's census.

(iii) It was because new technology in medical science i.e., sonogram had been developed and used frequently to identify sex of the foetus and female foetuses were destroyed through abortion techniques.

(iv) It is because the sex ratio had fallen from 941 in 1961 to an all time low of 927 in 1991 CE.

Formal demography simply refers to a mathematical study of such vital events as birth, death, migration, marriage and divorce. Social demography refers to a study of relationship between demographic phenomena on the one hand and social and economic phenomena on the other.

Changes due to shift from formal to social demography

The recent development in the field of demography have marked a shift from formal demography to social or substantive demography which takes into account not only the demographic components such as economic, social and cultures factors. The shift in demography has made these sciences more relevant and meaningful because demographic changes can be explained not only from social, economic and cultural perpectives. Social demography as a new branch of knowledge exists at the margin of demography and sociology.

Thomas Robert Malthus was an English economist who looked at the problems of population from the demographic point of view. This perspective is based on the empirical work conducted by Malthus and others mainly in European countries. The main features of this perspective are as given hereunder—

Population has a natural tendency to increase which is faster than the level of subsistence because—

(i) Mankind has an inherent tendency to reproduce.

(ii) The means of production mainly the land has the limited capacity for subsistence production of food and agro-products.

There is an antagonism between the power of population and the power of the earth to provide with means of subsistence. The former has the protential to increase faster than the latter (subsistence). There are two unequal powers.

(i) India is a land of villages. Majority of Indian population lives in the villages even today. Here we see mostly the joint family system in vogue. Owing to this system, most of the members of the family do not try to earn and depend in the earning of the head of the family.

(ii) There is over population in our country. Owing to this, unemployment problem is at climax here and unemployed people tend to depend on one or the other people in the society/family.

(iii) Lack of knowledge or deliberate skip from family planning methods is one of the main reasons for dependence in our country. Large families depend on the income of a few earning members.

Main features of historical approach.

It is also known as the theory of demographhic Transition. This theory gives socio-demographic changes passing through three well defined stages of transition from ancient to medieval to the modern stage. These three stages indicate an evolutionary sequence of changes from simple to complex and from a high to low fertility-mortality rates.

Main features of this theory are as under:

(i) It signifies a clear sequence of evolutionary socio-economic and demographic changes.

(ii) The changes follow an identical pattern of change from simple to complex and from high to low fertility rate.

(i) Fall in death rate : Increased level of control over families and epidemic diseases like plague, smallpox, cholera and pandemic like Spanish Flue, Asian influenza and Hongkong influenza. These are under checks due to improvements in medical cures, programmes for mass vaccination and efforts to improve sanitations. No doubt, diseases like malaria, tuberculosis, diarrhoea and dysentery are still existed, these take a toll of minuscule population hence, not so fatal as in the past.

(ii) Increase in birth rate : As per census of 2001, birth rate in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh is still at the highest level as compared to other states of India. Total Fertility rates in these states have been recorded over 4 per woman. These states have contributed 45% to the total population as of 2001 and it is estimated that they will also account for about half of the additions to the Indian population upto the year 2026.

(iii) General progress of the country in post independence period, economic developments like—green revolution, white revolution, yellow revolution and Blue revolution (i.e. genetic engineering) are some of the other factors responsible for the speedy growth of population in India.

Meaning of city : City is an assembly of such centralised towns in which facilities like developed means of transport and communication, systematic trade centres, administrative units, educational institutions for higher education etc are available. The density of population is often high in them.

Causes of increasing density of population in cities : Due to industrialization and urbanisation, the density of population is continously increasing in cities. Due to industrialisation, villagers keep on migration to cities in search of jobs and employment. Better living conditions in cities also draw people towards them. That is why the density of population in most of the cities is increasing everyday.

In fact, there is cultural unity in Indian villages. Common values and group norms a re reinforced through rituals, festivals age-old customs and traditions. Even today, Indian villagers are agents of Indian culture and units of Indian civilization. They still operate with traditional Indian calendar.

(i) A town is smaller is size than a city. A settlement with a population of one lakh or more persons is called a city. On the other hand, a town should have population of 5,000 or more persons.

(ii) Towns are bigger than villages but smaller than the cities. Generally, the local self government of a town is called municipality while that of a city is corporation.

(iii) Generally, the density of population in a town is less than the density of population of a city or cities.

Achievements of National Family welfare programme in half a century.

(i) Crude birth rate has been reduced from 40.8 of 1951 to 24.1 in 2004.

(ii) Reduction in infant mortality rate from 146 per 1000 live births of 1951 to 581 per 100 live birth in 2014

(iii) Couple protection rate has been increased four times from 10.4% of 1971 to 44% in 1999.

(iv) Crude death rate has been reduced from 25 of 1951 to 7.5% in 2004.

(v) Life expectancy has increased from 37 years to 62 years i.e., 25 years.

(vi) Cent per cent public awareness has been created for the need and methods of family planning.

(vii) Total fertility rate has been halved from 6 of 1951 to 3 in 2004.

(i) This group will be located at pyramid of 1981 in the age group of 25-29 years and in the age group of 45-49 years in 2001. Moreover, it will be in the age group of 70-74 years at the projected pyramid for 2026.

(ii) In the pyramid for 1961, the widest part is that of 0-4 years age group in case of females while age group of 0-4 years and 05-09 years in case of males, it is age group of 05-09 years in both cases of males and females in the pyramids of 1981 and 2001 and it is age group of 30-34 years in both cases of males and females in 2026.

(iii) The shape of pyramid in 2051 might be just reverse to the pyramid of 2001 i.e. 80 years shall get the shape as that of 0-4 years and its bottom (i.e. 0-4 years) shall shrink as the top we see in 2001. In another 49 years /later (i.e. in 3001) the position of the pyramid shall get the reversion of the position as we see in the pyramid of 1961 CE.

Malthus believes that agricultural production increases in directly proportional while population rises in inversely proportional or geometric progressive pace hence, population control is only measure to attain prosperity. Human Beings are generally find them unable to are positive checks or natural procces of population control that maintain the balance between availability of food and its consumers. In brief, he refers positive checks as famines and diseases. These checks increase the death rate and thus, remove imbalance between food supply and increasing population.

In order to understand this contrary phenomenon in the population of rural and urban India, we would like to reproduce following comparative table of twentieth century:

we notice is the table that rural population in terms of number was 213 million in the beginning of century while it reached to 743 millions by taking in increase of 530 million but in the mean time, its percentage has fallen from 89.2% of 1901 to 72.2% in 2001 thereby revealing a fall of 17%. Contrary to it, urban population rose from 10.8% of 1901 to 27.8% in 2001 registering an increase of 17% in the same period. In terms of numbers, it was however 26 million in 1901 and increased to 286 million, thus, considerable increase of 260 million in 2001. Moreover, a continuous trend of increase in urban population since the beginning of 20th century is prime-facie while it is fluctuating up to 1931 in case of rural population. This increase is not confined only in terms of numbers but processes of modern development ensure that the economic and social significance of the agrarian-rural way of life declines relative to the significence of the industrial urban way of life.

Reasons:

(i) Agriculture is no more an occupation hat can give an adequate economic subsistence to agriculturists. Costs of inputs was increased considerably while prices of agro-products are taking i nose-dive.

(ii) Reluctance to farming operations of agriculturists and shifting to non-farm rural occupations like transport services, business enterprises or craft manufacturing is also a major reason for their migration to cities.

(iii) Farmers have been attracted to urban life styles and patterns of consumption owing to awareness created by mass media and communication channels.

(iv) Mass transit and mass communication have bridged the gap between the rural and urban areas.

(v) Rural people initially go to cities in search of jobs but shortly they settle there.

(vi) Common resources like ponds, forests and grazing lands have become private property in village hence, people have no access to these resources. They cannot get fodder, fuel and supplementary food items free of cost as earlier hence, it is also a major reason for their migration to urban centres.

(vii) There are no opportunities for earning cash income in villages.

(viii) The people from depressed castes like ST and SC feel them get-rid of humiliation in relative anonymity that a city provides. Hence, people migrate to cities in order to get rid of humiliation due to caste identity.

As the age structure of the population indicates, India is one of youngest countries in the world. We have seen from census of 2001 that age-group of 15-59 years is 59% of the total population while it is 34% in case of 0-4 years age group and 7% in 60 + years. It is a position that provides a demographic dividend because India has a vast work-force of youth. As India's one-third population was below 15 years i.e. in 0-14 year age group in 2000, it will attain 29 years age in 2020 while in case of China and USA it will 37, in Western Europe it will 45 and in Japan it will attain 48 years. Thus, India with remain more youth than these countries. This implies a large and growing labour force which can deliver unexpected benefits in terms of growth and prosperity.

No doubt, therefore, it is favourable position of age structure yet this work force can bring amazing prosperity to India only if they are provided with productive education and employment within the country. In absence of education, their productivity will remain lower and if they remain unemployed, then they are unable to earn at all and become dependent rather than earners.

Hence, we can stat that mere change in age structure can not guarantee any benefits unless it is properly utilised through planned development. In our country, dependency ratio is worked out by working out working age and non-working age population while it should be worked out by taking in account, the ratio of non-workers to workers. We see that dependency ratio in terms of workers and non-workers in India has fallen from 79 in 1970 to 64 in 2005 but age based dependency ratio is projected to fall to 48 in 2025 due to continued fall in the proportion of children in the total population and it will rise to 50 by 2050 because of an increase inthe proportion of the aged people viz. they will till then become old.

As data from to National Sample Survey Studies of 1999-2000 say and census of 2001 reveals, the growth of employment between 1987 and 1994 for rural and urban youth was recorded 2.4% while it was fallen to 0.3% between 1994 and 2004. Hence, it can not be hoped that this demographic dividend would be utilised and exploited in India for her prosperity and growth.

These goals can be summed-up as under:

(i) To address the needs for basic reproductive and child health services, supplies and infra structure.

(ii) To make school education up to age 14 free and compulsory and to reduce drop outs at primary and secondary school levels to below 20% for both boys and girls.

(iii) To reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births.

(iv) To reduce maternal mortality ratio to below 100 per two 1000 live births.

(v) To achieve universal immunisation of children against all vaccine preventable diseases.

(vi) To promote delayed marriage for girls not earlier than age of 18 and preferably after 20 years of age.

(vii) To achieve universal access to information counselling and services for fertility regulation and contraception with a wide basket of choice (viz. several devices) to choose any of them)

(ix) To achieve cent-percent registration of births, deaths, marriage and pregnancy.

(x) to contain the spread of Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and to promote greater integration between the management of Reproductive Tract Infections (RTI) and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) and the national AIDS control organisation.

(xi) To prevent and control communicable diseases.

(xii) To integrate Indian Systems of medicine (ISM) in the provision of reproductive and child health services and in reaching out to households.

(xiii) To promote vigorously, the small family norm to achieve replacement levels of Total Fertility Rate (TFR).

(xiv) To bring about convergence in implementation of related social sector programmes so that family welfare becomes a people centred programme.

Karl Marx condemns the Mathusian theory on ground that certain economic conditions create the position of over population. Those conditions are created by the capitalist mode of production which lack a rational distribution of wages and resources and effective use of human productivity.

Such a process of capital accumulation creates different forms of surplus population and increases poverty and under-development. Thus, over-population is a consequence of capitalist economy.

Main features of Marxist theory:

(i) Growth of population is determined by economic conditions of living.

(ii) There is no universal law of population and food production. If there is any law, it is historically determined in accordance with the changes in the mode of production but it is not determined by the so-called unequal powers of population and land.

(iii) In order to achieve optimum size of population and reduce population on growth, social reorganisation or collectivisation of economy and the national distribution of resources and the expansion of infrastructural facilities are needed.

(iv) The economic perspective does not support the notion of diminishing return from any factor, mainly the land. According to this viewpoint, the productive capacity of land increases through the application of science and technology.

(v) As per Karl Marx, development is regarded as the best contraceptive. Development and over-population are relative terms. They are inversely correlated and population declines as development takes place.

Indicators of socio-demographic characteratics of India's population

(a) The birth rate, the death rate and the infant mortality rate of India's population have declined but they are still quite high as compared to developed countries of the world.

(b) The growth rate of population of our country has declined over the years but the size of total population in India has increased. India has crossed one billion of population as per 2001 census.

(c) There are numerous socio-economic and cultural factors responsible for decline in population still constantly high birth rate is prevailing in our country.

(d) The age composition of the population indicates that the size of the lower groups has become smaller because of decline in mortality and fertility.

(e) It also indicates remarkable change in India's population is the increase in the size of elderly population and this has got a number of social, economic and health related implications.

(f) Like the process of fertility and mortality, migration is another demographic process. It brings about changes in structure and size of population of our country.

Features of an Urban Community

(i) Social Heterogeneity:The concentration of a large population in a small area leads to social heterogeneity. Density maximises the competition for space and for comparative advantage and thus, forcespecialisation.

(ii) Social control:Individuals are free from close social control. The city usually promotes the sense of alienation and loneliness.

The longer the city, the greater becomes the problem of control and more complex the agencies of secondary regulation.

(iii) Voluntary Association:The size of the urban population, its close proximity, diversity and easy contact, makes it the perfect setting for voluntary associations. In the urban space, nearly every kind of group acquires a voluntary character.

(iv) Individualism:The secondary and voluntary character of urban association, the multiplicity of opportunities and the social mobility all force the individual to make her or his own decisions and to plan her or his life as a career.

(v) Social mobility:City characterises and promotes great social mobility. The elaborate division of labour found in the city coincides with a system of stratification which is based on achievement rather than ascribed status. Urban structure is managed by recruiting a heterogeneous population on the basis of competence, efficiency and novelty rather than birth. It promotes on open stratification system characterised by inequality.

(vi) Greater inequality:The city demands a certain amount of external comfornity on grounds of decency and convenience. In urban space, there is existence of both extreme poverty and affluence. Urban slums and elites are notable examples of greater inequality in urban communities.

(vii) Spatial segregation:The competition for space in the heterogeneous and dynamic city leads to a characteristic segragation of groups and functions visible in the city's spatial pattern. The centre of the urban area is monopolised by functions of basic importance to the whole city such as finance and government.

Basic Argument : Population growth is linked to overall levels of economic development and every society follows a typical pattern of development related population growth.

Explanation : This argument clarifies that if the society is underdeveloped and technologically backward, the pace of population growth will always slow and low. It ?cause per capita earning capacity of such unskilled society will remain meagre or minimum. People from such society would do manual work, suffer from mal-nutrition and ailments hence, death rate is found Higher in them as compared to people from society of educated and skilled people. Again, growth rates are low because both the death rate and between the two is low. In a developed society, death and birth rate being low, the difference between them is again small. Hence, growth rate is always low. The stage between backwardness and skilled people is called a transitional stage in which growth rate of population is witnessed very high when death rates are brought down through public health, better nutrition and disease control method. Society behaviour takes time to adjust with the new situation of relative prosperity and longer life span, hence; population explosion takes place during transition period. For an instance, Indian society has still not brought any change in her reproductive behaviour while mortality or death rates have brought down considerably here since last decade.

Thus, we see that the transition period or the middle phase of backwardness and development is associated with a population explosion. Society takes time to adjust with the changed situation.

(i) Birth Rate:The number of live births per thousand persons m a year is called Birth rate, it is different from actual number of births.

(ii) Death rate : It is the number of deaths per thousand persons In a year. The birth rate was 49.2 (per thousand) in the beginning of the 20th century and it came down to 26.1 per thousand at the end of century. It means a fall of 22.1 (per thousand) while in the same period (i.e. in a century) death rate delined from 42.6 (per thousand) to 8.7 (per thousand) i.e. decline of 33.9 (per thousand). It reveals that birth rate is relatively happens because public health measures and advancement in medical technology can control the death rate immediately and much faster than the birth rate. Birth rate centrary to it continues to be highbecause of early marriage lack of education and ineffective birth control measures' Presently, our scientists have developed a number of measures to control epidemics like Malaria, Small Pox, T.B. etc. Some of these are even eradicated now. Hence, the death falls rapidly. As per Thomas Robert Malthus, the power of population is superior to the power of the earth to produce subsistence for man. Human vices are the precursors in the great army of destruction and often finish the dreadful work themselves. Mankind has only a limited ability to voluntarily reduce the growth of its population through preventive checks like postponing marriage or practicing sexual abstinence or celibacy. Hence, it becomes difficult to check the birth rate in a given period of time as fast as the death rate. Birth rate is a socio-cultural phenomenon that is relatively slow to change.

States at the replacement levels of population growth in India are—Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Manipur, Nagaland, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Goa.

The states still have very high rates of population growth are—Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.

By Replacement level, we mean giving birth to two children that replace the couple viz. Husband and wife. Kerala's total fertility rate is actually below the replacement level, i.e. 1.8 children per couple. It means that the population is going to decline in future.

The states very near the replacement levels of population growth are Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, west Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram.

Reasons for regional differences

(i) Socio-cultural formation and literacy are different in each state of India. There are people who still lay emphasis on reproduction of more children so that they might jump in the row of majority and secure more political interests in democracy.

(ii) Prejudices and stereotypes are also responsible for regional differences in population growth.

(iii) Lack of understanding national interest and giving preference to individual interests over national interests.

(iv) Lack of sensitivity and intelligence.

(v) Variations in the landforms. For instance, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh etc. being hilly regions, there is seen lower population growth as compared to Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Age structure of the population is meant by three age groups i.e. Age group of 0-' 14 years, 15-59 years and 60 + years. Children, youth or work force/working population and elder population or old people. In order to explain India's structure of the population, we would like to represent available data of different groups from 1961 to estimated/projected structure in 2026 in the following table.

Age structure of the Indian

Population 1961-2026

We notice in the above table that the share of the under 15 age group in the total population has come down from its highest level of 42% in 1971 to 35% in 2001 and it is projected to be reduced further to 23% in 2026. It means birth rate in India is gradually decreasing. The share of 15-59 age group has started increasing from 53% of 1961 and 1976 and reached at 59% in 2001. It will increase again to 63% and 64% in 2011 and 2026 respectively as projected by the technical group on population. Projections (1996-and 2006) of the National Commission on population. It thus, reveals that this age group or working population is all time increasing and the average age is also less than that for most other countries because we see, the 60+years group has remained a meagre share in Indian population. The 60 plus group has come down to 5% in 1971 from 6% of 1961 and then it has started increasing with a moderate pace and rose to 7% in 2001. Its estimated or projected increase is 8% in 2011 and 12% in 2026. Thus, we see that life expectancy is at rise with moderate pace upto 2001 and it is estimated to increase faster since 2011 onwards as the difference between 8% of 2011 and that of 12% in 2026 comes 4% i.e. rapid increase over the trend in the previous decennial censuses. Relevance for economic development and growth.

(i) The increasings percentage of 60 plus age group reveals that life expectancy is at rise because of advancement in medical sciences, public health measures and nutrition. These all are indicator of prosperity and development.

(ii) Decrease in 0-14 years age group reveals that National Population Policy is being implemented properly and people of India have understood the need for family planning in order to check population. (iii) Age structure of the population also informs us that dependency ratio is decreasing and there is all the increase in working population or it indicates that the majority of Indians tend to be young.

(iv) Developing countries can adopt suitable measures to keep their population in balanced size by perusal of data on age composition of the developed countries. Thus, age structure of the population of a country can be studied by the other for useful purposes.

(v) Government of a nation can review and renew her development plans on the basis of information on age structure of population.

(vi) Age structure of the population reveals socio-cultural changes, economic and political percussions and thus, helps in review and reform future planning for the welfare of the nation as a whole.

Number of females per thousand males in a given area at a specified time period is called sex ratio. It is an important indicator of gender balance in the population. Historically, all over the world it has been found that there are slightly more females than males in most countries despite the fact that slightly more male babies are born than female ones. viz. 943 to 952 female babies for every 1000 males. In context to India this ratio is declining continuously for more than a century. The census of 2001 reveals that sex-ratio of all age groups is 933 per thousand and child sex-ratio (0-6 years) is 927 per thousand male babies. It is really a cause of concern.

Yes, Parents still prefer to have son rather than daughter as it is evident from day-to-day media reports of foeticides, infanticides and on abortion cases. It is surprising that such preference has even no relation with poverty because had it been so, the states like Pubjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi and Maharashtra would have the highest child sex ratio Instead, the census of 2001 reveals that these are states with the lowest (i.e. 950 female babies per 1000 male babies) sex ratios. So we can state categorically that the problem of selective abortions is not due to poverty or ignorance or lack of resources. We all people know that Pre-Natal Diagnostic techniques (Regulation and preventing of Misuse) Act, 1996 has been passed and further strengthened in 2003 yet selective abortions frequently being done however in some clandestine ways. These facts revealed by media are strong evidence to such preference of parents.

Probable Reasons : (i) Religions or cultural beliefs-There are certain beliefs that it is son only entitled to perform funeral and obeisance (shraddha) of his parents. In the absence of son, this right goes to the next male heirs but never to their daughters.

(ii) Ignorance-Parents assume that daughters have to leave their home after marriage and even their caste is changed on the day when marriage is solemnised. However, sons live always with them and share common food, house, customs and rituals. So, they hope sons will look after them in their old age.

(iii) Fear of social enigma and other problems-Some parents fear of social enigma if they are defiled, entrapped in illicit physical relations at their prime and moreover, burden of maintenance if they are any way deserted, divorced by their husbands or widowed due to ill-luck.

These and several others including certain legal frameworks, ethics and canons stimulate the mentality of giving preference to sons over daughters in Indian society.

Factors responsible for the decline in sex ratio in India:
 (i)  Sex specific abortion - foeticide.
(ii)  Female infanticide.
(iii) Preference for male child
(iv) Severe neglect of infants -girls.

Reasons for the setback of the Family planning programme during Emergency:
(i) Introduction of a coercive programme of mass sterilization. 
(ii) A vast number of mostly poor and powerless people were forcibly sterilized. Sterilization refers to medical procedures like a vasectomy for men and tubectomy for women which prevent conception and childbirth.
(iii) There was massive pressure on lower level government officials( school teachers or office workers) to bring people for sterilization in the family planning camps; that were organized specially for this purpose.
(iv) However, There was widespread popular opposition to the programme. Ultimately, this programme was abandoned by the new government elected after the Emergency.

Literacy as a prerequisite to education is an instrument of empowerment. The more literate the population the greater the consciousness of career options, as well as participation in the knowledge economy. 
Further, literacy can lead to health awareness and fuller participation in the cultural and economic well being of the community. Enormous effort is needed to ensure the literacy of the new generations – which are only just beginning. Literacy levels have improved considerably after independence and almost 2/3 of population is now literate in India.
Literacy varies considerably across regions and across social groups. Literacy rate also varies by social group-historically disadvantaged communities like the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have lower rates of literacy and rates of female literacy within these groups are even lower. The power of literacy is its ability to inspire independent thinking, make wise choices and foster critical analysis.

It is a measure comparing the portion of a population which is composed of dependents (elderly people who are too old to work and children who are too young to work) with the portion i.e. in the working age group (15-64 years).

(i) The ‘demographic dividend’ results from an increase in the proportion of workers relative to non-workers in the population. In terms of age, the working population is roughly that between 15 and 64 years of age.
(ii) This working age group must support itself as well as those outside this age group (i.e., children and elderly people) who are unable to work and are therefore dependents.
(iii) The actual problem is in defining the dependency ratio as the ratio of the non-working age to working-age population, rather than the ratio of non-workers to workers.
(iv) India is really facing a window of opportunity generated by the demographic dividend.

Formal demography is primarily concerned with the measurement and analysis of the components of population change. Its focus is on quantitative analysis for which it has a highly developed mathematical methodology suitable for forecasting population growth and changes in the composition of the population. Social demography, on the other hand, enquires into the wider causes and consequences of population structures and change.

1. Regional variations of low child sex ratio can be seen in India. It is important to note that the lowest child sex ratio are found in India. It is important to note that the lowest child sex ratios exist in the most prosperous regions of the country.

2. Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat and Maharashtra are among the richest
   states of India in terms of per capita incomes. However, all these states with the lowest
   child sex ratios.

3. The problem of selective abortions is not due to poverty or ignorance or shortage of resources.

4. It is also possible that as economically prosperous families decide to have fewer children – often only one or two now – they may also wish to choose the sex of their child.

The maternal mortality rate is the number of women who die in child birth per 1000 live births.

The following reasons are responsible for more maternal deaths in India than any other country in the world:
(A) Backwardness and poverty;
(B) Lack of medical facilities, education and awareness.
The following efforts are being done by the Indian Health Ministry to overcome this issue.
(A) Ministry of Health has announced it is strengthening efforts in the 264 districts that account for nearly 70% of all infant and maternal deaths.
(B) The government is seriously implementing a 'mother and child tracking system' which tracks every pregnant women by name for the provision of timely anetnatal care, institutional delivery, postnatal care, and immunisation for new born.
(C) The Indian Government has committed to promoting maternal health and family planning, pledging to spend $ 3.5 billion per yer on improving health services, especially women's and children's health.

The Millennium Development Goal target (MDG) is to bring down the IMR - the number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births to 28 by 2015.

Infant Mortality Rate: The infant mortality rate is the number of death of babies before the age of one year per 1000 live births.
  The following districts have reduced their IMR to 28:
  Purbi Singhbhum, Rudraprayag, Dhanbad, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Almora.

The crude birth rate is a rough average for an entire population and does not take account of the difference across age-groups.
Natural growth rate of population refers to the difference between the birth rate and the death rate.

Names of states with maximum amount of decline in birth rate.
(a) Punjab,  (b) Kerala,   (c)  Maharashtra,     (d) West Bengal.
Name of states with maximum amount of decline in death rate.
(a) Madhya Pradesh,  (b) Rajasthan    (c) Bihar   (d) U.P.

Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in a given area during a specified period of time.
Adverse sex ratio refers to a decline in sex ratio, or a fall in the number of women relative to men.

(i) The schemes like the Ladli Scheme will certainly help you to solve the problem of the adverse child sex ratio.
(ii) Under the Ladli scheme every girl child is entitled to Rs. 6000/5000 at the time of birth, depending on whether the baby was delivered in a government hospital or elsewhere. The Delhi government deposits Rs. 5000 each at the time of admission to classes, I, VI, IX, X and XII. The money is kept as a long-term fixed deposit in the name of the child who can encash it when she turns 18.

Successes and Achievements of family planning programme:
(i) Population dynamics is a significant matter, therefore to counter and control the increasing population, India has become the first country to explicity declare such a policy in 1952.
(ii) The broad objectives of the National Family Programme are to try to influence the rate and pattern of population growth in socially desirable directions.
(iii) The most important objective was to slow down the rate of population growth through the promotion of various birth control methods, improve public health standards, and increase public awareness about population and health issues.
Over the past half-century or so, India has many significant achievements to her credit in the field of population.
Failures of family planning programme:
(i) The Family Planning Programme suffered a setback during the years of the National Emergency (1975-76). Normal parliamentary and legal procedures were suspended during this time and special laws and ordinances issued directly by the government (without being passed by Parliament) were in force.
(ii) During this time the government tried to intensify the effort to bring down the growth rate of population by introducing a coercive programme of mass
sterilization.There was widespread popular opposition to this programme, and the new government elected after the Emergency abandoned it.
(iii) The National Family Planning Programme was renamed as the National Family Welfare Programme after the Emergency, and coercive methods were no longer used.