Themes In Indian History Iii Chapter 12 Colonial Cities

A careful study of the data gathered through the census helps us a lot in understanding the trend of urbanisation. It can be examined as under:

(i) The process of urbanisation was sluggish in India after 1800.

(ii) In the nineteenth century and first two decades of the twentieth century the proportion of the urban population to the total population of India was very low and stagnant.

(iii) Between 1900 and 1940, there was a 13% increase in the urban population whereas during the same period, there was a 10% increase in the population of the whole country.

(iv) The data helps us in the enumeration of people according to their age, sex, caste, religion and occupation.

(v) The British lived in the White areas whereas the Indians lived in the Black areas. The white areas stood for cleanliness and hygiene. On the other hand, the black areas signified chaos, anarchy, filth and disease.

The British had white skin. So they were often called the ‘white’. They suffered from the white man’s burden and considered themselves as superior to others. On the other hand, the blacks had brown or black skin. So they were called as the ‘black’ such as the Indians or Africans. Thus white signified the superiority over the black.

According to the British, the black areas symbolised chaos and anarchy, tilth and disease. On the other hand, the white areas stood for cleanliness and hygiene. In Black areas, epidemics like cholera and plague often spread. So the British took stringent measures to ensure sanitation and public health. They wanted to prevent diseases of the black areas. So they ensured underground piped water supply. They also introduced sewerage and drainage system. In other words, the British paid a lot of attention towards sanitary vigilance.

Thus white towns were those parts of the colonial cities where the white people lived. The cantonment areas were also developed at safe places. They had wide roads, barracks, churches and parade ground. Besides they had big bungalows in big gardens. In fact, the White Town symbolised settled city life. But in the Black Town, the Indians lived. They were unorganised. They were source of filth and disease.

The important Indian traders settled in colonial cities like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. They were most rich as they served as agents or middlemen. They built large traditional courtyard houses in the Black Town. They also bought up large tracts of land in these cities. They made investments for the future. They wanted to impress their English masters by giving lavish parties during festivals. They also built temples to establish their status and prestige in society.

(a) In 1756, Sirajudaula the Nawab of Bengal sacked the small fort which the British traders had built to house their goods. Consequently when Sirajudaula was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, the British built a new fort. Fort William would not be easily attacked.

(b) Around Fort William, a vast open space was left which came to be known as the Maidan or garermath. This was done so there would be no obstructions to a straight time of fire from the Fort against an advancing enemy army. Soon the British began to move out of the Fort and built residences along the periphery of the Maidan. This was how the English Settlement in Calcutta started taking shape. The vast open space around the Fort became Calcutta’s first significant town planning measure.

(c) Lord Wellesley was concerned about the conditions that existed in the Indian part of the city the filth, overcrowding and the poor drainage. He wrote a minute (an administrative order) in 1803 on the need for town planning and set up various committees for this purpose.

(d) It was believed that creating open places in the city would make the city healthier. Consequently many bazaars, ghats, burial ground and tanneries were cleared or removed.

(e) After Wellesley’s departure, the Lottery Committee carried on with the work of town planning. In its drive to make the Indian areas cleaner, the committee cleared the river bank of encroachment and pushed the poor to the outskirts of Calcutta.

(f) The outbreak of cholera and plague epidemics in the 19th century gave a further impetus to town planning. The government believed that there was a direct link between living conditions and the spread of disease. Densely built up areas were regarded as insanitary as it obstructed sunlight and circulation of air.

The different colonial architectural styles in Bombay:
(i) Surving functional needs and simple structure : If one way of realising this imperial vision was through town planning, the other was through embellishing cities with monumental buildings. Buildings in cities could include forts, government offices, educational institutions, religious structures, commemorative towers, commercial depots, or even docks and bridges. Although primarily serving functional needs like defence, administration and commerce, there were rarely simple structures. They were often meant to represent ideas such as imperial power, nationalism and religious glory. Let us see how this is exemplified in the case of Bombay city.
(ii) Expansion of population, commercial activities and foreign trade: Bombay was initially seven islands. As the population grew, the islands were joined to create more space and they gradually fused into one big city. Bombay was the commercial capital of colonial India. As the premier port on the western coast it was the centre of international trade.
(iii) Development of Railway, shipping and administrative units and development of European architectural style in Bombay city:

(a) As Bombay’s economy grew, from the midnineteenth century there was a need to expand railways and shipping and develop the administrative structure. Many new buildings were constructed at this time. These buildings reflected the culture and confidence of the rulers.

(b) The architectural style was usually European. This importation of European styles reflected the imperial vision in several ways. First, it expressed the British desire to create a familiar landscape in an alien country, and thus to feel at home in the colony. Second, the British felt that European styles would best symbolise their superiority, authority and power. Third, they thought that buildings that looked European would mark out the difference and distance between the colonial masters and their

(c) Initially, these buildings were at odds with the traditional Indian buildings. Gradually, Indians too got used to European architecture and made it their own.

In the 18th century, many old towns went into decline. They were replaced by new towns which soon emerged and developed. As there was a gradual erosion in the power of the Mughals, it caused an eclipse of various cities associated with their rule. Delhi and Agra, which were the capitals during the Mughal rule, lost their political authority and grandeur.

(i) Emergence of New Regional Powers: During the 18th century, many new regional capitals emerged. They soon gained importance. Such powers were Lucknow, Hyderabad, Seringapatam, Poona, Nagpur, Baroda and Thanjavur. Those traders, artisans and administrators who earlier lived in the Mughal centres of power now left these places and migrated to new capitals in search of work and patronage.

(ii) Creation of new urban settlements:

Many official and local nobles lived in the Mughal cities. They created their new urban settlements such as the ‘Qasbah’ and ‘Ganj’. However there was an uneven growth of cities. Some places flourished because of their economic activities. But some places faced economic decline due to war, plunder and political instability.

(iii) Growth of trading centres : The emergence of ruban centres brought many changes in the network of trade. For example, the Portuguese settled in Panaji in 1510 and the Dutch in Masulipatnam in 1605. The British came in Madras in 1639. The French took hold of Pondicherry in 1673. It led to an expansion of economic and commercial activity. So many towns grew around these trading centres. By the end of the eighteenth century, the land-based empires in Asia were replaced by the powerful sea-based European empires. It ushered in International trade, mercantilism and capitalism in the society

(iv) Emergence of colonial port cities : In the mid-eighteenth century, the commercial centres like Dhaka and Masulipatnam lost their importance. With the British becoming more powerful after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the trade shifted to cities like Madras, Calcutta and Bombay which had emerged as new economic capitals due to the trade activities of East India Company. So these cities also became centres of colonial, political and administrative power. By the end of 1800, Madras, Calcutta and Bombay had become the biggest cities in India.

The Indians found the new colonial cities as bewildering. They were amazed at the new transport factilities such as horse-drawn carriages, trams and buses. These transport facilities enabled the people to live at a distance from the city centre. They lived at some other place and served at some other place.

Emergence of new public places : The new colonial cities saw the creation of new public places like the theatres, cinema-halls, gardens and public parks. Besides there were clubs and Garden Houses.

Functions : These public places were very exciting. They were an important source of entertainment. They also increased social interaction. The people were able to express their opinions on society and government. They could also question the practice of social customs.

After the Revolt of 1857, the British nurtured various concerns and worries regarding town-planning which is evident from the following points:

Constant Fear of Rebellion : Having faced the Revolt of 1857, the whitemen in India had a constant fear of rebellion from Indians. So they wanted to live in more secure and segregated enclaves. To ensure their defence, they wanted to live away from the native people from whom they faced the threat of rebellion. So, they cleared many agricultural fields and pasture land and set up urban spaces called the Civil Lines. The Englishmen lived in these Civil Lines. They also set up cantonment areas for the stationing of the armed forces.

Development of White Towns : The British were also concerned about epidemics like cholera and plague which often spread in India, killing thousands of people. So they demarcated both Black and White areas. The black areas symbolised only chaos and anarchy. They stood for filth and disease. The British always feared that disease would spread from the Black to the White areas. So they developed White Towns for themselves. These towns signified hygiene and cleanliness. The British took stringent administrative measures to ensure sanitation of these areas. They also regulated the building activity. They also made arrangements for the underground piped water supply. They cared a lot for sewerage and drainage systems. In fact, they kept an utmost sanitary vigilance.

(i) There was remarkable transformation in social relations in the new colonial cities developed during the British rule in India. The process of urbanisation in colonial India explore the distinguishing characteristics of colonial cities and track social changes within them. The people of different nook and corner, culture, languages, civilisation, classes, occupations, services, taste settled in Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Panji, Pondicherry, etc.

For the Indian population, the new cities were bewildering places where life seemed always in a flux. There was a dramatic contrast between extreme wealth and poverty.

(ii) New transport facilities such as horse-drawn carriages and, subsequently, trams and buses meant that people could live at a distance from the city centre. Over time there was a gradual separation of the place of work from the place of residence. Travelling from home to office or the factory was a competely new kind of experience.

(iii) A new class within the cities was the labouring poor or the working class. Paupers from rural areas flocked to the cities in the hope of employment. Some saw cities as places of opportunity; others were attracted by the allure of a different way of life, by the desire to see things they had never seen before.

(iv) As far as three biggest colonial cities are concern these were originally fishing and weaving villages. The life of fishermen and women as well as weavers were very hard. As these villages became important centres of trade due to economic activities of the English East India Company, their life was disturbed. They had to live nearby port area outside of the fortified area. They had experience of colour and racial discrimination at the hands of Europeans. The rich Indian merchants use to play as agents of weavers and fishermen.

(v) As modem industries, factories, mills and new institutions, public services, infrastructure develop people from far away small town and village come in new cities in search of work and employment. The rich merchants of Surat, Masulipatnam, Dacca etc. also started coming to new cities to start their new business and extend their activities.

(vi) From the early years colonial government became keen in preparing map of the new cities. They collected datas. These data were use to know exact number of blacks, whom the Europeans generally hated and misbehave.

(vii) The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in the fortunes of towns. Economic activities gradually shifted away from traditional towns which were located along old routes and rivers.

(viii) Colonial cities reflected the mercantile culture of the new rulers. Political power and patronage shifted from Indian rulers to the merchants of the East India Company. The rich Indian agents and middlemen built large traditional courtyard houses in the Black Town in the vicinity of the bazaars.

(ix) In the new colonial city the sense of coherence and familiarity of the old towns was no longer there, the creation of public places– for example, public parks, theatres and from the twentieth century, cinema halls–provided exciting new forms of entertainment and social interaction.

Major rivers and hill ranges of India:

Rivers : Indus, Jhelum, Ravi, Satluj, Gangs, Yamuna, Beas, Kosi, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.

Hill Ranges : The Himalayas, Aravali, Vindhyachal, Satpura, Karakoram.

Self study.

Hint : Different types of services in towns and villages : (i) We are having local self government in our villages. It is called from Gram Sabha, Gram Panchayat and Nyaya Panchayat. Gram Sabha is constituted by all adult inhabitants of our village. Their age is 18 years or more than 18 years. After every five years they constitute members for Village Panchayat. There is a Surpanch and five Punch; out of five two are women and one is representative of scheduled castes. These all members assemble in Gram Panchayat Bhawan at least once in a month.

(ii) Our Gram Panchayats look after their local problems such as cleanliness, sanitation and disposal of dirt, wastage and rubbish of the village. Panchayat is making provision for supply of clean drinking water. It maintaining a small dam outside the village. The rain water is harvested in dam. Drains, lanes and roads have been constructed for disposal of dirty water and severage wastage in huge pitches which have been constructed in our villages.

(iii) People are very particular about maping of our village or town. They get passed maps and design from Panchayat (Municipalities of the town).

(iv) Our Village Panchayat had made provision for mobile hospital which come twice, weekly from our Panchayat Samiti (or development blocks). Some private doctors are practising in our village. There is very small health centre for women and children, even senior citizens are also examine by the dispensery and doctors.

(v) From time to time our District Collector go village to listen the problems related with schools, health centres, markets and agriculture etc.

(vi) Our Nyaya Panchayat sits from time to time. Our Surpunch along with some heads of different communities sit together and discuss problems related with villagers. Our caste panchayats are also very active in the villages.

Self study by the student.

By the mid-nineteenth century second local census had been carried out in different regions. The first all India census was attempted in 1872. Thereafter, from 1881 decadel (conducted every ten years) census become a regular feature.

A careful study of census reveals some fascinating trends. For example, after 1800, urbanisation in India was sluggish. All through the nineteenth century up to the first two decades of the twentieth, the proportion of the urban population to the total population in India was extremely low and had remained stagnant.

(i) The colonial government felt that good map is necessary to understand the land sketch.

(ii) It also consider very helpful to know the topography. This knowledge was consider to allow the colonial government to have better control over the region.

(iii) When towns began to grow maps were prepared not only to plan the development of towns but also to develop commerce and consolidate power.

The figures of mortality and disease were difficult to collect due to following reasons:

(i) For all deaths were not registered.

(ii) Illness was not always reported and they were not treated by licence doctors.

Paupens from rural areas flock to the cities due to two following reasons:

(i) To get work or employment.

(ii) Some persons such as artisans and administrators went there for patronage.

(i) White towns were mainly for whites i.e. for European people to live in and Black towns were for the black people mainly Indians and or other Asian African if any.

(ii) The British believed in colour and racial discrimination and therefore they constructed different town areas for people of White and Black racial people during the time of the English East India Company.

(i) There were many reasons why the British took upon themselves the task of town planning from the early years of their rule in Bengal. One immediate reason was defence. In 1756 Sirajudaula, the Nawab of Bengal, attacked Calcutta and sacked the small fort which the British traders had built as their depot for goods.

(ii) The English East India Company traders had been continuously questioning the sovereignty of the Nawab. They were reluctant to pay customs duties and refused to comply with the terms on which they were expected to operate so Sirajudaula wanted to assert his authority.

After 1850, the colonial cities Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (Kolkata) and Mardas (Chennai) had the following two features:

(i) These cities were linked with the whole country through a network of railways. They were centres for export of the raw material.

(ii) They had a lot of cheap labour as they had a vast population.

The colonial government paid a special attention to prepare good maps. They did so because of the following reasons:

(i) The government believed that the map were essential to know the detail of any location.

(ii) When the cities started growing big, the need for the maps was felt to prepare plans of urban development. The maps were also considered essential to strengthen the political authority.

(i) The middle class had an access to new education centres like schools, colleges and libraries.

(ii) As they were educated, they could express their views in newspapers, journals and social gatherings. It helped in the creation of new public environment.

(i) From the early years, the colonial Government was keen on mapping. It felt that good maps were necessary to understand the landscape and know the topography. This knowledge would allow better control over the region.

(ii) A careful study of censuses reveals some fascinating trends. After 1800, urbanisation in India was sluggish. All through the nineteenth century up to the first two decades of the twentieth century the proportion of the urban population to the total population in India was extremely low and had remained stagnant.

(iii) As the hub of the colonial economy, they functioned as collection depots for the export of Indian manufactured such as cotton textiles in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

in the colonial cities, the Dubashes were those people who spoke in both the local language and the English language. They used to act as agents or traders. They acted as mediators between the British and the Indian society. They constructed their houses in traditional way near the markets of the Black Town.

(i) Big cities had new institutions and every type of facility was available over there.

(ii) They had ample opportunities for new jobs and occupations.

Examples:

(i) Economic activities gradually shifted away from traditional towns which were located along old routes and rivers.

(ii) Every railway station became a collection depot for raw materials and a distribution point for imported goods.

For instance, Mirzapur on the Ganges, which specialised in collecting cotton and cotton goods from the Deccan declined when a railway line was made to Bombay.

(a) Hill stations were set up as they were strategic places to billet troops, guard the frontiers and launch campaigns against enemy rulers.

(b) Two hill stations set up were Simla which was founded during the course of the Gurkha War and Darjeeling which was taken from the Sikkim rulers in 1835.

Neo-Gothic style was consisted of high pitched roofs, pointed arches and detailed decoration. The origin of this style can be traced to the churches built in Europe during the Medieval Period.

(b) Bombay University, the High Court and the secretariat were all built in this style. The most spectacular example of this style is the Victoria Terminus, the headquarters of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company.

(a) Commercial centres like Surat, Dhaka and Masulipatnam declined as trade shifted to other places.

(b) New port cities like Madras, Calcutta and Bombay now developed as major economic centres.

(a) This area had broad streets and bungalows were to be found surrounded by large gardens.

(b) It also included barracks, a parade ground and a church.

(a) It was fluid because peasants travelled long distances on pilgrimage often passing through towns. There was also an exodus from the villages to towns in times of famine.

(b) A reverse flow from towns to villages occurred when the towns were attacked. Trader and pedlars also took goods from the towns to sell in the villages.

(a) Trams, buses and horse drawn carriages were introduced in the cities.

(b) This meant that people could live away from the centre of the city and travel easily to work.

(a) The significant variations were that the smaller towns had little opportunity to grow economically.

(b) On the other hand Madras, Bombay and Calcutta developed into sprawling cities. Their growth as the new commercial and administrative centres was at the expense of other existing urban centres.

(a) The new black town resembled a traditional Indian town with residential areas built around the temple and bazaar.

(b) Caste specific neighbourhoods came up on the narrow lanes that criss-crossed the town.

The new cities were bewildering places for the people of India. They presented a life of struggle to the poor working class. It is clear from the following points:

(i) There was an uncertainty of jobs.

(ii) The food in the city was very expensive.

(iii) The places of stay were so costly that one could not afford them.

The Lottery Committee was set up in 1817 after the departure of Lord Wellesley. It carried on the work of town planning with the help of the government. It was named as the Lottery Committee because it raised funds through public lotteries. However, it used these funds for the improvement of the town.

The following regulations were enforced to control events of fire in the city of Calcutta:

(i) In 1836, the thatched huts were banned.

(ii) Tiled roofs were made mandatory.

(i) The opening of the Suez Canal strengthened the link of Bombay with the world economy.

(ii) It developed Bombay as the most important city of India. In fact, Bombay was declared as the Urbs Prima in Indis-a Latin phrase which meant that Bombay was a great city of India.

(i) This style created an atmosphere of familiarity for the British. When they saw buildings in the European style, they found familiar landscape in India which was an alien country for them. So they felt at home in Bombay.

(ii) The British considered the European style of constructing buildings as superior. They considered them as symbols of power and authority.

(i) It was a hybrid architectural style that developed in the beginning of the twentieth century. It combined the Indian style with the European.

(ii) The British adopted this style as they felt inspired from the domes, chhatri, jalis and arches of the medieval buildings.

(i) Surat, Masulipatnam and Dhaka were the cities which grew commercial centres in the seventeenth century. But they declined in the eighteenth century because trade had shifted to some other places.

(ii) These three cities were replaced by Madras, Calcutta and Bombay which, being colonial port cities, emerged as new economic capitals.

By 1800, the cities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras had become the biggest cities in India in terms of population. There were the following reasons for this development:

(i) They had centres of colonial administrati on and political power.

(ii) They had new buildings and institutions.

(iii) They had ample opportunities for new jobs and occupations.

In the late 19th century, Indian representative institutions like Municipal Corporations were developed to provide the following facilities:

(i) To ensure the water supply.

(ii) To provide sewerage.

(iii) To build roads.

(iv) To maintain public health.

Differences between town and countryside in precolonial period were the following:

(i) Three presidency cities of India were originalIy fishing and weaving villages. They become important centers of trade due to the economic activities of the English East India Company, Company agents settled in Madras in 1639 and in Calcutta in 1690. Bombay was given to the Company in 1661 by the English king, who had it as part of his wife’s dowry from the king of Portugal. The Company established trading and administrative offices in each of these settlements. By the middle of the nineteenth century these settlements had become big cities from where the new rulers controlled the country.

(ii) Towns were often defined in opposition to rural areas. They came to represent specific forms of economic activities and cultures. In the countryside people subsisted by cultivating land, foraging in the forest, or rearing animals. Towns by contrast were peopled with art sans, traders, administrators and rulers.

(iii) The separation between town and countryside was fluid. Peasants travelled long distance on pilgrimage, passing through towns, they also flocked to towns during times of famine. Besides, there was a reverse flow of humans and goods from towns to villages. When towns were attacked, people often sought shelter in the countryside. Traders and pedlars took goods from the town to sell in the villages, extending markets and creating new patterns of consumption.

Social changes brought in the new colonial cities were:

(i) Within the cities new social groups were formed and the old identities of people were no longer important. All classes of people were migrating to the big cities. There was an increasing demand for clerks, teachers, lawyers, engineers and accountants. As a result the middle classes increased.

(ii) Another new class within the cities was the labouring poor or the working class. Paupers from rural areas flocked to the cities in the hope of employment. Some saw cities as places of opportunity, others were attracted by the allure of a different way of life, by the de sire to see things they had never seen before.

(iii) Over time there was a gradual separation of the place of work from the place of residence travelling from home to office or the factory was a completely new kind of experience.

(iv) There was a dramatic contrast between extreme wealth and poverty. New transport facilities such as horse-drawn carriages and subsequently, trucks and buses meant that people could live at a distance from the city centre.

(i) From the mid-eighteenth century, there was a new phase of change. Commercial centers such as Surat, Masulipatnam and Dhaka, which had grown in the seventeenth century delined when trade shifted to other places. Madras, Calcutta and Bombay rapidly emerged as the new economic capitals.

(ii) From the early years, the colonial government was keen on mapping. It felt that good maps were necessary to understand the landscape and know the topography. This knowledge would allow better control over the region.

(iii) From the late nineteenth century the British tried to raise money for administration towns through the systematic annual collection of Municipal taxes.

(iv) A careful study of censuses reveals some fascinating trends. After 1800, urbanization in India was sluggish. All through the nineteenth century up to the first two decades of the twentieth, the proportion of the urban population to the total population in India was extremely low and had remained stagnant.

The colonial cities reflect the mercantile culture of the British rulers in the following way:

(i) Population : After 16th century new European merchants reached from different directions in India. Changes in the network of trade reflected in the history of urban centers. The European commercial companies had setup base in different places early during the Mughal Era : the Portuguese in Panaji in 1510, the Dutch in Masulipatnam in 1605, the British in Madras in 1639 and the French in Pondicherry (present day Puducherry) in 1673. With the expansion of commercial activity, towns grew around these trading centers. By the end of the eighteenth century the land-based empires in Asia were replaced by the powerful sea-based European empires. Forces of international trade, mercantilism and capitalism now came to define the nature of sociery.

The new kinds of public places emerged in the colonial city. They performed different types of functions for different people and agencies.

(ii) Ports : By the 18^th century, Madras Bombay and Calcutta had become ports. Traders, merchant agents, labourers, boilers, clerks and other employees used to provide different services and functions.

The settlement that cause up here work convenient points for collecting goods.

(iii)Factories : The Europeans fortified their different factories (i.e. mercantile offices). These forts were used for the protection of goods, European settlers and other things.

(iv) Railway Stations : Railway stations were developed in all the three colonial cities and some important towns or cities nearby these cities. Railway stations were used by government official, Sepoys, traders, merchants and tourists. With the expansion of network of railways, links between major cities and rest of the country develop.

(b) Although Calcutta, Bombay and Madras supplied raw materials for industry in England, and had emerged because of modern economic forces like capitalism, their economies were not primarily based on factory production. The majority of the working population in these cities belonged to what economists classify as the tertiary sector. There were only two proper “industrial cities” : Kanpur, specialising in leather, woollen and cotton textiles, and Jamshedpur, specializing in steel. India never became a modern industrialised country, since discriminatory colonial policies limited the level of industrial development.

(a) Erosion of Mughal power led to the decline of towns associated with their rule. Regional capitals like Lucknow, Poona, Nagpur and Baroda now become important.

(b) Many nobles and officials used this opportunity to create new urban settlements such as the qasbah and ganj.

(c) The European companies had set up their bases in different places during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For example, the Portuguese in Panaji in 1570 and the British in Madras in 1639. With the expansion in commercial activity, towns emerged around these trading centres.

(d) From the mid-eighteenth century a change occurred. Centres like Surat and Dhaka which had grown in the seventeenth century now declined as trade shifted to other place. When the British acquired Bengal and the East India Company’s trade hereafter expanded the colonial port cities likes Madras and Calcutta emerged as the new economic capitals.

(e) Here new buildings were builts and new occupations developed. People flocked to these cities in large numbers and by the nineteenth century they had become the biggest cities in India.

(a) The European Companies set up trading centres in places like Panaji (Portuguese), Masulipatnam (Dutch) and Pondicherry (French).

(b) As trade expanded, towns grew around these trading centres.

(c) From the mid-eighteenth century, commercial centres, like Surat and Dhaka declined as trade shifted to other places.

(d) The English East India Company's trade expanded after the Company acquired Bengal. Colonial port cities, like Madras, Calcutta and Bombay rapidly emerged as the new economic capitals.

(e) New buildings, institutions and new, occupations developed. As people flocked to these cities, these cities become the biggest Indian cities in terms of population.

The first all-India census was attempted in 1872. Thereafter, from 1881, decadel (conducted every ten year) census became a regular feature.

Aims:

1. Finding out about colonial cities, different types of the record s and datas were collected to know the urban history, population of different communities, castes, sects etc. This collection of data is an invaluable source for studying urbanisation of India.

2. Census was very helpful to get hand data to measure historical changes. The endless pages of tables on disease and death or the enumeration of people according to their age, sex, caste and occupation, provide a vast mass of figures that creates an illusion of contentness.

3. The census operation, was a means by which social data were converted into convenient states about the population. The Census commissioners devised categories for classifying different sections of the population.

(i) The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in the fortunes of towns. Economic activity gradually shifted away from traditional towns which were located along old routes and rivers.

(ii) Railway stations were developed in all the three colonial cities (Calcutta, Bombay and Madras) and some important towns or cities nearby these cities. Railway stations were used by government officials, sepoys, traders, merchants and tourists.

(iii) With the expansion of network of railway links between major cities and rest of the country develop. Railways helped these cities in growth of size, population, factories, industries, transportation, better social relations and mutual understanding.

(iv) Cities became centres of interaction or exchange of political ideas and helped a lot to cities’ middle class to participate in the national freedom struggle.

Features of colonial cities in India: The process of urbanisation in colonial India, explore the distinguishing characteristics of colonial cities and track social changes within them. We will look closely at developments in three big cities–Madras (Chennai), Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai) were developed during British Raj.

(i) All three were originally fishing and weaving villages. They become important centres of trade due to the economic activities of the English East India Company. Company agents settled in Madras in 1639 and in Calcutta in 1690. Bombay was given to the Company in 1661 by the English king, who had got it as part of his wife’s dowry from the king of Portugal.

The Company established trading and administrative offices in each of these settlements. By the middle of the nineteenth century these settlements had become big cities from where the new rulers controlled the country.

(ii) Colonial cities reflected the merchantile culture of the new rulers. Political power and patronage shifted from Indian rulers to the merchants of the East India Company.

Changes in the field of local bodies after 1858 : Financial crisis led the government to further decentralize administration by promoting local government through municipalities and district boards. Local bodies were first formed between 1864 and 1868 consisted of nominated members who were presided over by District Magistrate. In this regard Lord Ripen took some important steps during his rule in 1882. A government resolution laid down the policy for local administration through rural and urban local bodies:

(a) In big cities Municipal Committees were set up by the British Government.

(b) In the villages district boards were set up.

(c) Education, health, cleanliness, supply of water and other local services were entrusted in the hands of local institutions.

(d) The members of the rural and urban local bodies would be non-officials who were elected by the people.

(e) These non-official members were permitted to be elected as chairman of local body.

(f) The elected members were very less in number in all the municipalities and the district boards because they were elected by a small number of voters as the right to vote was given only to some limited people.

(g) The district officials acted as presidents of district boards and the non-officials gradually become chairman of municipal committees.

Bombay Presidency:
(i) The factory of Surat was the earliest and the most typical of the British factories in India. The internal economy of the Surat factory set the norm for other factories and Presidencies. In 1657, the Surat factory was constituted the sole Presidency of the English in India. Englishman Sir George Oxiden took possession of Bombay in Sept. 1668 for the first time.
(ii) Declaration of Bombay as a Bombay Presidency, George Aungier suggested in 1671, that the seat of the Presidency should be Bombay.

(iii) Some steps for the growth of Bombay Presidency :

(a) Sir Jasia Child strongly fortified and the expenditure incurred was met from increased rent, custom duties and municipal taxes.

(b) In 1684 a Court of Admiralty was set up in Bombay.

(c) The internal administration of Bombay in the first half of the eighteenth century was marked by the establishment of the bank.

Madras, Calcutta and Bombay had become important ports by the eighteenth century. They had many factories and mercantile offices built by the East India Company. So the British got these cities fortified to ensure protection of both men and the goods. In Madras, the White men settled in Fort St. George. They settled in Fort William in Calcutta. They lived near the Fort in Bombay. On the other hand, the Indians lived outside these forts. They had their own settlements where the merchants, artisans and other workers lived together.

All these cities had separate quarters for the Indians and the Europeans. The Indians lived in the Black Towns wheres the white lived in the

White Town. The Black areas symbolised by chaos and anarchy, filth and disease. But the white areas stood for hygiene and cleanliness.

(a) This was done because the British wanted to create a familiar landscape and thus be at home. Moreover they felt that European styles would best symbolize their authority and power.

(b) Thirdly it was felt that European buildings would mark out the difference between the ruler and the ruled. The example is the bungalow which was used by government officers in Bombay and other parts of India.

(c) It name was derived from Bangla a traditional thatched Bengali hut. The bungalow was set in the middle of extensive grounds which ensured privacy.

(d) The traditional pitched roof and surrounding verandah kept the bungalow cool in the summer months. Separate quarters for servants were to be found in the compound.

(e) The bungalows were generally to be found in the Civil Lines. These became a racially exclusive enclave in which the ruling classes could live self-sufficient without coming into daily contact with the Indians.

Initially Bombay was a state of seven islands. With the increase in population, these islands were joined to create more space and new one big city was created. With the growth of Bombay’s economy a need was felt from the mid 19th century to expand railway and shipping and even develop the administrative structure. A number of new buildings were constructed at this time. The architectural style of these buildings was usually European.

Bungalows and Public Buildings : Initially these buildings looked very strange in comparison with the traditional Indian buildings. But gradually Indians too vised to European style of architecture and they adopted this style. On the other hand, British adopted some of the Indian style to suit their needs. One of its example is bungalows which were made for government officers in Bombay and other parts of the country. The bungalow was constructed on large piece of land. It not only ensured privacy for the people living in it but it also marked a distance from the Indian world around. It had traditional pitched roof and surrounding veranda to keep the bungalow cool. There were separate quarters for domestic servants in the compound.

Basically three architectural styles were used for public buildings. Two of these styles were prevalent in England. One of these styles was neo-classical style. The buildings constructed in this style had geometrical structures. They also had lofty pillars in the front. It resembled the style of buildings in the ancient Rome. This style was considered most suitable for the construction of buildings in the British India. The Town Hall of Bombay was built in 1833 and was based on this architectural style.

Almost all the hill-stations in India were developed by the British. The hill stations were an important aspect of the colonial urban development. They were set-up and developed to fulfil the needs of the British army. Shimla was founded during the course of Gurkha War (1815-16). Similarly the British developed Mount Abu during the Anglo-Maratha War of 1818. They snatched Darjeeling from the rulers of Sikkim in 1835.

Distinctive features of hill stations:
The hill-stations were very important for the British as they fulfilled the following objectives:

(i) They were strategic places for the stay of troops.

(ii) They facilitated defence and guard of the frontiers.

(iii) They were the best places to launch campaign against enemy rulers.

(iv) The temperate and cool climate of the hill-stations was suitable for the British who associated hot weather with epidemics.

(v) The hill-stations served as cantonments for the army in the hills. They also protected the army from diseases like cholera and malaria.

(vi) The hill stations were developed as sanitoriums. These were the places where soldiers could be sent for rest, recreation and recovery from diseases.

(vii) They were frequently visited by British rulers like the Viceroys. Most of the British officials moved to hill stations during the summer season. In 1864, John Lawrence, the then Viceroy of India, officially moved its council to Shimla. The official residence of the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian army was also in Shimla.

(viii) The hill-stations, provided many opportunities for recreation. They served as picnic-spots, tea-parties, race and visits to the theatre.

(ix) The hill-stations were important for the economy of the British. They had tea and coffee plantations in the nearby areas. So they had a large number of immigrant labour.

(i) After 1800, the pace of urbanisation in India was sluggish. The growth of urban population in proportion to the total population of India was almost stagnant. From 1900 to 1940, the urban population increased from 10% to 13%.

Besides the smaller towns did not grow because they had limited economic opportunities. Only the cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras grew rapidly. They became sprawling cities because they offered ample opportunities for employment. They became commercial and administrative centres. But most of the other urban centres remained the same.

(ii) The other urban centres did not grow as only Calcutta, Madras and Bombay had become the hub of colonial economy. They had become export centres of the Indian goods. But after the Industrial Revolution in England, the trend of growth was reversed. These cities had become the centres to export Indian goods. Hence other areas did not develop well.

(iii) The introduction of railways in 1853 also accelerated the economic activity in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. The traditional towns lagged behind in growth as they were located along old routes and rivers. For example, Mirzapur was famous collection centre of cotton and cotton goods from the Deccan. When a rail link was made to Bombay, this town witnessed a decline. On the other hand, cities like Jamalpur, Voltairs and Bareilly developed most as they came on a rail track.

(i) Hill stations are very important for human being, animals and birds. They are called places of good health and protectors of pure air and environment.

(ii) During ancient times many saints, munis and spiritual leaders used to go to perform yoga, spiritual exercises. Our traditional ancient texts tell us that several gods and goddesses either visited, lived or wandered during different ages and times. They delivered sermons and religious teachings.

(iii) From economic point of view our tourist industry, transport industry, at some places work of pony keepers and boats men also depend on hill stations directly or indirectly. Every year people in great number from different parts of country as well as from other countries visit to hill stations. These tourists provide employment to local people as well as promote hotel business and local craft and cottage industries.

(iv) Generally doctors advise people to spend somedays on hill stations to keep their good health or improve their body and mind. We get the best seen of natural beauty, different kinds of plants and trees, fruits and flowers. We can enjoy the sweet music of birds as well as charming animal and beautiful wild lives. Hill stations are lungs of the country. Their natural environment, lakes, springs, rivers, ponds, beautiful parks, gardens should be protected by government as well as by people.

(a) The three gates still held were the Ajmeri, Turkman and the Delhi Gate.

(b) The people fled to the countryside because the British had recapture the city from the rebels. In retaliation to the atrocities committed by the rebels, the British were killing the inhabitants of Delhi and looting their property. Fear for their safety led the people to take sanctuary in small villages and temples where they waited for conditions to become favourable for their return.

(c) The three cities were Madras, Bombay and Calcutta. Initially fishing and weaving villages, these settlements became big cities due to the economic activities of the East India Company agents settled in Madras (1639) and Calcutta (in 1690). Bombay was given to the Company (1661) by King Charles. Trading and administrative offices were set up in each of these settlements which paved the way for their growth.

(a) Wellesley felt that the duty of the government was threefold in nature:

(i) The government had to provide for the health, safety and convenience of the people.

(ii) For this purpose roads, streets, public drains and water supply had to be improved.

(iii) Construction of houses and public buildings had to conform to standardised rules and regulations.

(b) The Lottery Committee helped to raise fund for town improvement through public lotteries. It got a new map of Calcutta made so as to get a comprehensive picture of Calcutta.

Its major activities included building roads in the Indian part of the city and clearing the river bank of encroachments.

(c) The government believed that there was a correlation between living conditions and the spread of disease. Therefore densely built-up areas like the working people’s huts or bustis were demolished. The city’s poor-workers, hawkers, artisans were forced to move to distant parts of the city.

Lottery committee initiated town planning in Calcutta.

Features:

 It raised funds for town improvement through public lotteries.

‘‘The architecture in colonial Bombay represented ideas of imperial power, nationalism and religious glory.’’ The reasons:

(i)As Bombay’s economy grew, from the mid 19th century the British developed new administrative structures. Many new buildings were constructed in European style to reflect the culture and confidence of the rulers. To symbolise their superiority, authority and power European would also mark out a difference between colonial masters and their Indian subjects.

(ii)For public buildings three broad architectural styles were used. Two of these were direct imports from fashions prevalent in England. The first was Neo-classical which characteristics included construction of geometrical structures fronted with lofty pillars.

(iii)It was derived from a style that was in ancient Rome. The British considered particularly appropriate for the British Empire in India. eg : The Town Hall in Bombay built in 1833 , Elphinstone Circle subsequently named Horniman Circle which was inspired from models in Italy . It made innovative use of covered arcades to shield shoppers and pedestrians from sun and rain of Bombay.

(iv)Another style that was extensively used was the Neo Gothic, characterised by high pitched roofs , pointed arches and detail decoration.

(v)The Gothic style had its roots in buildings , especially churches built in North Europe during medieval period.

 (vi)The Neo Gothic style was revived in mid -19th century in England. The most spectacular example of this style is Victoria Terminus, the station and headquarters of the Greeat Indian Penninsular Railway Company.

(vii)Towards the beginning of the twentieth century a new hybrid architectural style developed which combined the Indian with the European and was called Indo –Saracenic . Europeans used Saracen term to designate Muslim and Indo was Shorthand for Hindu. The inspiration for this style medieval buildings in India with their domes , chhatris , jalis and arches. Example of Indo-Saracenic is Gateway of India and Taj Mahal Hotel.

(viii)By integrating India and European styles in public architecture the British wanted to prove that they were legitimate rulers of India . Architecture reflects the aesthetic ideals prevalent at a time, and variations within those ideals.

The reasons:

 (i) It was felt that good maps were necessary to understand the landscape and know the topography.

 (ii) The town maps give information regarding the location of hills, rivers and vegetation, all important for planning structures for defence purposes.

 Examples:

 (i) Women sought to express themselves through the mediums of journals, autobiographies and books.

 (ii) They entered new professionals in the city as domestic and factory workers, teachers, and theatre and film actresses.

 The values:

 (i) There was an increasing demand for clerks, teachers, doctors, engineers and accountants.

 (ii) They had access to new educational institutions such as schools, colleges and libraries.

 (iii) A new public sphere of debate and discussion emerged, social customs, norms and practices came to be questioned.

The new opportunities that the colonial cities offered to women during the 19th century:

(i) Middle-class women sought to express themselves through the medium of journals, autobiographies and books.

(ii) Over time, women became more visible in public.

(iii) They entered new professions in the city as domestic and factory workers, teachers, and theatre and film actresses.

(iv) Even reformers who supported women’s education saw women primarily as mothers and wives, and wanted them to remain within the enclosed spaces of the household.

(v) But for a long time women who moved out of the household into public spaces remained the objects of social censure.

The significance of census operation undertaken by the British in India:

(i) The census operation, for instance, was a means by which social data were converted into convenient statistics about the population.

(ii) The census commissioners devised categories for classifying different sections of the population. This classification was often arbitrary and failed to capture the fluid and overlapping identities of people.

i. Europeans recreated settlements reminiscent of their homes.

ii. Churches and educational institutions were set up by the British.

The hill station founded during the course of the Gurkha War was Simla.

It was developed as a sanitarium because of the temperate and cool climate of the Indian hills.