Themes In Indian History Iii Chapter 11 The Revolt Of 1857 And Its Representations

(a) To fight the British, leadership and organisation was required. For this reason rebels turned to the erstwhile rulers.

(b) One of the first acts of the sepoys was to visit Delhi and pressurise the Mughal emperor to become their leader.

(c) When he reluctantly complied, the revolt acquired a kind of legitimacy because it could now be carried on in the name of the Mughal Emperor.

(d) In Kanpur the people and sepoys gave Nana Sahib no choice but to join the revolt. In Jhansi also the Rani gave in to popular pressure.

(e) In Lucknow (Awadh) the people celebrated the outbreak of the revolt by hailing Birjis the son of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah as their leader.

The Revolt of 1857 was well-planned and well-coordinated. It is evident from the following points :

(i) There was coordination and harmony between sepoys and the ordinary people. Both wanted to target the white people.

(ii) The revolt got a tinge of legitimacy as it was carried forward under the leadership of Bahadur Shah, the last Mughal Emperor in India.

(iii) The Hindus and the Muslims united and rose together against the white people.

(iv) There was communication between the sepoy lines of various cantonments.

(v) Another example of good planning and organisation can be cited from Awadh where Captain Hearsey of Awadh Military Police was provided protection by his Indian subordinates during the mutiny. The 41st Native Infantry, which had killed all its white officers, insisted that the military police would either kill Captain Hearsey or hand over him as prisoner. But the military police refused to kill Captain Hearsey. At last they decided to settle the issue in a panchayat having native officers drawn from each regiment.

(i) The Christian missionaries were assuring material benefits to Indians to convert them to Christianity. So many people of India became antagonistic towards the British.

(ii) Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General of India, initiated reforms in the Indian society. He abolished customs like sati and permitted remarriage of the Hindu widows. Many Hindus viewed these steps against the ideology of Hinduism.

(iii) The British introduced western education, western ideas and western institutions in India. They set up English-medium educational institutions. But many Hindus considered these steps as attempts to encourage religious conversion.

(iv) Many people felt that the British were destroying their sacred ideals that they had long cherished.

(v) Many Hindus were enraged when the Christian missionaries criticised their scriptures or religious books.

The following measures were taken to ensure unity among the rebels:

(i) In all their proclamations, the rebels repeatedly appealed to all sections of society. They did not take caste or creed into consideration.

(ii) Many proclamations were made by the Muslim princes. A few others were issued in their names. But all such proclamations took into consideration the sentiments of the Hindus.

(iii) The rebellion had an equal participation of both the Hindus and the Muslims. They had equally to lose or gain.

(iv) Many pamphlets were issued which glorified the co-existence of different communities under the Mughal Empire. Bahadur Shah appealed to all the Muslims to fight in the name of Muhammad. He also exhorted the Hindus to rise against the white people in the name of Mahavir. There was a complete unity between the Hindus and the Muslims.

The British took following steps to quell the uprising of 1857:

(i) Despatching Troops : The British officials send different groups of sepoys and forces. These troops were despatches against the rebels and reconquer in North India.

(ii) Framing of Laws : They passed a series of laws to help their troops to quell the insurgency. By a number of acts, passed in May and June 1857, not only was the whole of North India put under martial law.

(iii) Empowerment of the English : British military officers and even ordinary English citizens were empowered to try and punish Indian suspected of rebellions.

(iv) Harsh Punishment : Sever punishments were given to rebellion. It was put out that rebellion would have only one punishment death.

(v) Recapturing of Delhi : Recognizing the symbolic value of Delhi (it was capital of Mughal emperors since the days of Sahajahan), the British mounted a two-prolonged attacked on the city. One force moved from Calcutta into North India and the other from the Punjab–which was largely peaceful–to reconquer Delhi. British attempts to recover Delhi.

(vi) Punishments to people of Delhi : Britishers try to crush the people of Delhi upto their maximum strength. They started their sinful efforts in this regard in early June 1857. They took more than four months to finally capture this city. The fighting and losses on both sides were heavy. One reason for this was the fact that rebels from all over North India had come to Delhi to defend the capital.

(a) The British annexed Awadh on grounds of mal-administration and wrongly assumed that the Nawab was an unpopular ruler. On the contrary he was greatly loved and his departure from Lucknow was marked by widespread grief and sorrow.

(b) The emotional grief of the people was aggravated by immediate material losses. Awadh’s annexation led to the dissolution of the court and its culture. A whole range of people-musicians, dancers, poets and artisans lost their livelihood.

(c) The annexation also dispossessed the taluqdars of the region. The taluqdars had earlier maintained armed retainers, built forts and enjoyed a high degree of autonomy. But immediately after the annexation, the taluqdars were disarmed and their forts destroyed.

(d) The British land revenue policy further undermined the position and authority of the taluqdars. The 1856 Summary Settlement was based on the belief that the taluqdars were interlopers with no permanent stakes in land. Thus the settlement sought to remove taluqdars wherever possible and the number of taluqdars came down. Many taluqdars of southern Awadh lost more half of the total number of villages they had previously held.

(e) The grievances of the peasants were carried over into the sepoy lines since the vast majority of the peasants were recruited from the village of Awadh. Low wages, ill-treatment by the British officers, difficulty in taking leave and the issue of the greased cartridges among other intensified their discontent.

(f) The majority of the sepoys of the Bengal army were recruited from the villages of Awadh and eastern U.P. The problems that the sepoy’s families faced and the threats they perceived were quickly transmitted to the sepoy lines and vice versa.

(g) Thus a chain of grievances in Awadh linked the peasants, sepoys and the common people. In different ways all came to identify British rule with the end of their world. Thus more than any other place, the revolt became an expression of popular resistance to an alien order.

(i) The rebels wanted to uproot the rule of the English.

(ii) They wanted that their rulers, nawabs, taluqdars, and zamindars should not be uprooted. The states of the princely rulers should not be annexed to the Company empire.

(iii) The rebels wanted unity among Hindus and Muslims. They wanted blessings and good wishes of Mughal Emperor as well as other kings and rulers for the success of revolt.

(iv) They did not like the impossing of English language and western civilization on their country. They did not like to be disturbed their social tradition, customs and life. Through we can observe some differences of opinion among different sections of the people of different areas .and regions. But even than most of them took harm against the English and their officials. They didnot like the racial and discriminated behaviour of the English.

The vision of different social groups and their differences:

(a) Zamindar s : The zamindar did not like the putting up of their land estate for public auctions just for arrears of rent. They did not like that their summon into court time to time due to some case filed against them by the ryot or maid servant or a slave.

(b) Merchants : This section of the society did not like British Government monopoly over the trade, particularly all the fine and valuable merchandise such as indigo, cloth and other articles of shipping. Besides this, the profits of the traders are taxed, with postage, tolls and subscriptions for schools etc.

(c) Public Servants: It is not a secret thing, that under the British Government, natives employed in the civil and military services have little respect, low pay, and no manner of influence, and all the posts of dignity and emolument in both the departments are exclusively bestowed on Englishmen. Therefore, all the natives in the British service ought to be alive to their religion and interest, and adjuring their loyalty to the English side with the Badshahi Government, and obtain salaries of 200 and 300 rupees a month for the present, and be entitled to high posts in the future.

(d) Artisans : It is evident that the Europeans, by the introduction of English articles into India, have thrown the weavers, the cotton dressers, the carpenters, the blacksmiths, and the shoemakers, etc. out of employ, and have engrossed their occupations, so that every description of native artisan has been reduced to beggary. But under the Badshahi Government the native artisan will exclusively be employed in the service of the kings, the rajas, and the rich, and this will no doubt ensure their prosperity. Therefore these artisans ought to renounce the English services.

(e) Pandits, Fakirs and other learned persons : The pandits and fakirs being the guardians of the Hindu and Mohammedan religions respectively viewed that the Europeans being the enemies of both the religions, and as at present a war is raging against the English. On account of religion, the pandits and fakirs are bound to present themselves and take their share in the holy war.

The visual representations tell us about the revolt of 1857 through nineteen pictures and the role played by different characters and people of groups. Different historians have also analysed there representation in their own angle and outlook. We will discuss the all figures related with chapter in the following way :

Fig. 11.1 : This figure indicates the portrait of Bahadur Shah. Physically he was very weak due to his old age but the rebel sepoys of Meerut who met him at the gate of Red Fort and wish to have his blessing though he was not eager but he was helpless and ultimately he gave them his blessing.

Fig. 11.1

Historians say that surrounded by the sepoys Bahadur Shah had no other option but to comply. The revolt thus acquired a kind of legitimacy because it could now be carried on in the name of the Mughal emperor.

Fig. 11.2 : This picture is related with common people of Lucknow. They joined the

Fig. 11.2

sepoys in attacking the British in Lucknow. The British were consider firangi by all Hindus and Muslims of Lucknow. The British historians describe that moneylenders, rich people as well as the British officials and their belongings were destroyed by the rebels. In the beginning the rebels got success in crushing the British rule. One British officer has noted “collapsed like a house made of cards”. Even the Delhi Urdu Akhbar refers “that due to activities of rebels ordinary life of the people was disturbed extraordinary during the days of mutiny. The prizes of vegetables have gone up very high and even the water supply had been disturbed.”

Fig. 11.3 : Rani Lakshmi Bai was very popular among the people of state. Most of the Indian historians point her as a great brave lady of the time but some unsucessfully try to this figure his brave deeds just by putting the fact in wrong manner that she was only worried about her own family and state. I think those historians are forgetting the political situation of that time of India. Every state was infact independent state of her own rulers like Jhansi of Lakshmi Bai.

Fig. 11.3

Fig. 11.4 This figure is of Nana Sahib. He fought very bravely against the English. At the end of 1858 when the rebellion collapse he escaped to Nepal. His escape had added to the legend of his courage and valour. It is correct interpretation of historians because the English were very clever and they should have been mercyless. Nana Sahib had reply them in a courageous manner.

Fig. 11.4

Fig. 11.5 : It is Henry Hardinge. He was military reformer but his introduction of Enfield rifles and use of greased cartridges in them became the immediate cause of mutiny in 1857.

Fig. 11.5

Fig. 11.6 : This picture point out the outwardly good position of the zamindars. After crushing the Revolt of 1857, zamindaris were returned to old zamindars. It shows that even in 1880 zamindari continued in Awadh and they use to live comfortable life.

Fig. 11.6

Fig. 11.7

Fig. 11.7 : Picture shows the different arms and weapons used by British troops and Bengal sepoys use European style uniforms during the British rule upto August 1947.

Fig. 11.8

Fig. 11.8 : This picture shows that religious places of different people were not destroyed but during mutiny days mosques and other places might have been ruin due to miscreants of the rebels.

Fig. 11.9 : This figure tells us that very grand buildings were built by Nawab of Awadh and Mughal architecture and style had been shifted in different capitals of different states but property as well as loss of human life was felt during the days of mutiny.

Fig. 11.10

Fig. 11.10 : Lucknow was recaptured by the English after a long war and struggle. The paintings of Thomas Janes Barker show the clearly the control of the English forces on Lucknow, the capital town of Awadh.

Fig. 11.11

Fig. 11.11 : The figure shows that rebels had created great panic in the minds of English women and children during the days of mutiny.

Fig. 11.12

Fig. 11.12 : This figure shows that the English women were grantly worried about protection of their owner and life in Kanpur against the rebellious sepoys.

Fie. 11.13

Fig. 11.13 : In Kanpur the painful event of terrible massacre took place on 12 Sep, 1857. This event created hate between the colonial rulers and the Indians.

Fig. 11.14

Fig. 11.14 : In this picture the ruling class or the white people have painted just lions and their rebels have been pointed at tiger. The tigers were crushed mercylessely by the ruling class people after mutiny.

Fig. 11.15

Fig. 11.15 : This picture shows that the English believe in rewarding exemplary death penalty to teach lesson to Indian soldiers. They wanted to teach that whosoever would think to revolt against the English king or government would face the same treatment.

Fig. 11.16

Fig. 11.1.6 : The English like to give death penalties in open surrounded by cannon to teach about their terror and mode of extreme punishment to soldiers as well as the common people. Peshawar was the centre of this terror located nearby Afghanistan. The Britishers desired to torturous the people of north west frontier as well as Afghans also.

Fig. 11.17 : Mutiny took place during the days of Governor Lord Canning. After mutiny he became the first Governor General of India during the rule of the British Crown. This picture shows that new set, up of government favoured mask clemancy but side by side the new Viceroy desired well discipline soldiers. There was no place for mutiny such as it took place in 1857.

Fig. 11.17

Fig. 11.1 : This figure indicates the portrait of Bahadur Shah. Physically he was very weak due to his old age but the rebel sepoys of Meerut who met him at the gate of Red Fort and wish to have his blessing though he was not eager but he was helpless and ultimately he gave them his blessing.

Fig. 11.1

Historians say that surrounded by the sepoys Bahadur Shah had no other option but to comply. The revolt thus acquired a kind of legitimacy because it could now be carried on in the name of the Mughal emperor.

Fig. 11.2 : This picture is related with common people of Lucknow. They joined the

Fig. 11.2

sepoys in attacking the British in Lucknow. The British were consider firangi by all Hindus and Muslims of Lucknow. The British historians describe that moneylenders, rich people as well as the British officials and their belongings were destroyed by the rebels. In the beginning the rebels got success in crushing the British rule. One British officer has noted “collapsed like a house made of cards”. Even the Delhi Urdu Akhbar refers “that due to activities of rebels ordinary life of the people was disturbed extraordinary during the days of mutiny. The prizes of vegetables have gone up very high and even the water supply had been disturbed.”

Fig. 11.3 : Rani Lakshmi Bai was very popular among the people of state. Most of the Indian historians point her as a great brave lady of the time but some unsucessfully try to this figure his brave deeds just by putting the fact in wrong manner that she was only worried about her own family and state. I think those historians are forgetting the political situation of that time of India. Every state was infact independent state of her own rulers like Jhansi of Lakshmi Bai.

Fig. 11.3

Fig. 11.4 This figure is of Nana Sahib. He fought very bravely against the English. At the end of 1858 when the rebellion collapse he escaped to Nepal. His escape had added to the legend of his courage and valour. It is correct interpretation of historians because the English were very clever and they should have been mercyless. Nana Sahib had reply them in a courageous manner.

Fig. 11.4

Fig. 11.5 : It is Henry Hardinge. He was military reformer but his introduction of Enfield rifles and use of greased cartridges in them became the immediate cause of mutiny in 1857.

Fig. 11.5

Fig. 11.6 : This picture point out the outwardly good position of the zamindars. After crushing the Revolt of 1857, zamindaris were returned to old zamindars. It shows that even in 1880 zamindari continued in Awadh and they use to live comfortable life.

Fig. 11.6

Fig. 11.7

Fig. 11.7 : Picture shows the different arms and weapons used by British troops and Bengal sepoys use European style uniforms during the British rule upto August 1947.

Fig. 11.8

Fig. 11.8 : This picture shows that religious places of different people were not destroyed but during mutiny days mosques and other places might have been ruin due to miscreants of the rebels.

Fig. 11.9 : This figure tells us that very grand buildings were built by Nawab of Awadh and Mughal architecture and style had been shifted in different capitals of different states but property as well as loss of human life was felt during the days of mutiny.

Fig. 11.10

Fig. 11.10 : Lucknow was recaptured by the English after a long war and struggle. The paintings of Thomas Janes Barker show the clearly the control of the English forces on Lucknow, the capital town of Awadh.

Fig. 11.11

Fig. 11.11 : The figure shows that rebels had created great panic in the minds of English women and children during the days of mutiny.

Fig. 11.12

Fig. 11.12 : This figure shows that the English women were grantly worried about protection of their owner and life in Kanpur against the rebellious sepoys.

Fie. 11.13

Fig. 11.13 : In Kanpur the painful event of terrible massacre took place on 12 Sep, 1857. This event created hate between the colonial rulers and the Indians.

Fig. 11.14

Fig. 11.14 : In this picture the ruling class or the white people have painted just lions and their rebels have been pointed at tiger. The tigers were crushed mercylessely by the ruling class people after mutiny.

Fig. 11.15

Fig. 11.15 : This picture shows that the English believe in rewarding exemplary death penalty to teach lesson to Indian soldiers. They wanted to teach that whosoever would think to revolt against the English king or government would face the same treatment.

Fig. 11.16

Fig. 11.1.6 : The English like to give death penalties in open surrounded by cannon to teach about their terror and mode of extreme punishment to soldiers as well as the common people. Peshawar was the centre of this terror located nearby Afghanistan. The Britishers desired to torturous the people of north west frontier as well as Afghans also.

Fig. 11.17 : Mutiny took place during the days of Governor Lord Canning. After mutiny he became the first Governor General of India during the rule of the British Crown. This picture shows that new set, up of government favoured mask clemancy but side by side the new Viceroy desired well discipline soldiers. There was no place for mutiny such as it took place in 1857.

Fig. 11.17

Fig. 11.18

Fig. 11.18 : This picture shows that India is a land of brave men and women. Rani Lakshmi Bai was worshipped as a brave lady and great heroine of India by comming generation.

Fig. 11.19

Fig. 11.19 : Mutiny took place in different places of India. The different pictures/dresses and designs of different people indicate that not only sepoys but common Indians were also against the British rule.

Fig. 11.18

Fig. 11.18 : This picture shows that India is a land of brave men and women. Rani Lakshmi Bai was worshipped as a brave lady and great heroine of India by comming generation.

Fig. 11.19

Fig. 11.19 : Mutiny took place in different places of India. The different pictures/dresses and designs of different people indicate that not only sepoys but common Indians were also against the British rule.

Source : Sisten and the tahsildar : This source indicate that the effect of the rebellions had spread even among those officers who had earlier supported the British. The English men worried about their lives, property, owner of women and children. The geographical extent of the revolt was much greater. The magistrate use to get news and development day to day through their governmental representatives but they were suspicious as later on magistrate of Sitapur came to know that the Sisten who came to him was a great sympathise of the rebellions.

The rebels humiliated all the elites. They especially targeted the moneylenders and the rich people because they considered them as local oppressors and the allies of the British. These people exploited and oppressed farmers. So the rebels attacked them. They looted and demolished their homes.

(i) Kanpur–Nana Sahib

(ii) Jhansi–Rani Lakshmi Bai

(iii) Bihar–Kunwar Singh

(iv) Lucknow (Awadh)–Birjis Qadr.

(i) Common men and women

(ii) Religious people

(iii) Self-syled prophets

(iv) Local leaders.

(i) The conservative Indians were annoyed when the British abolished customs like sati (1829) and permitted the remarriage of Hindu widows.

(ii) Under the leadership of Governor General Lord Willian Bentinck, the British wanted to reform the Indian society by introducing western education, western ideas and western institutions. They opened English-medium schools, colleges and universities. But the traditional people of India did not like the westernisation of their culture.

(i) The British did not recognise adoption. They also did not like misgovernance so they annexed not only Awadh but also kingdoms like Jhansi and Satara.

(ii) The British introduced their own system of administration in the annexed territories. They also enforced their own laws about land settlement and land revenue collection. It caused discontentment among the Indians.

(i) The people felt that the British were destroying those socio-religious customs which were sacred to the Indians.

(ii) The people of India did not like the activites of Christian missionaries. So they wanted freedom from the British rule.

(i) The Nawab of Awadh was deprived of his military force with Subsidiary Alliance. As a result Nawab became increasingly dependent on the British to maintain law and order with in the state.

(ii) Now he had no control over the rebellious chiefs and taluqdars.

(i) Britishers felt that the soil of Awadh was very good for cultivation of indigo and cotton.

(ii) They also thought that this state could be developed into the principal mar ket of North India.

Awadh was conquered and annexed into British empire by Lord Dalhousie in 1856.

The link between the sepoys and the rural world had a great impact on the nature of uprising. When the sepoys defied the orders of their superiors and took up arms then they were joined very quickly by their relatives of villages. Every where people went over to towns and joined the collective acts of rebellion.

On 11 May, 1857 the sepoys arrived at the gate of Red Fort to meet the Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah.

They met to have blessings of the emperor. The revolt acquired a kind of legitimacy because it could now be carried on in the name of the Mughal emperor.

(i) Delhi (ii) Meerut (iii) Lucknow (iv) Jhansi (v) Kanpur.

Late in the afternoon of 10 May, 1857, the sepoys in the cantonment of Meerut broke out in mutiny. It began in the lines of the native infantry, spread very swiftly to the cavalry and then to the city.

The sepoys began their action with a signal; in many places it was the firing of the evening gun or the sounding of the bugle. They first seized the bell of arms and plundered the treasury. They then attacked government buildings - the jail, treasury, telegraph office, record room, bunglows- burning all records. Everything and every body connected with the white men became a target.

The given statement is true.

(i) This emotional upheaval was aggravated

by immediated material losses. The removal of the Nawab led to the dissolution of the court and its culture. Thus a whole range of people -musicians, dancers, poets, artisans, cooks, retainers, administrative officials soldiers and so on – lost their livelihood.

(ii) The deposition of Nawab and annexation of Awadh dispossessed the taluqdars of the region. The countryside of Awadh was dotted with the estates and forts of taluqdars who for many generation had the controlled land and power in the countryside. Several sepoys of the Awadh state were expelled from their jobs. The dispossession of taluqdars means the breakdown of an entire social order. The relationship of the sepoys with their superior white officers underwent a significant change in the years preceding the uprising of 1857.

(iii) The grievances of the peasants were carried over into the sepoy lines since a vast majority of the sepoys were recruited from the villages of Awadh. for decades the sepoys had complained of low levels of pay and the difficult of getting leaves. By the 1850s there were other reasons for their discontent.

The dispossession of taluqdars and their resentment : (i) Fort were destroyed and very big band of foot soldiers were finish of the taluqdas. The British land revenue policy further undermined the position and authority of the taluqdars. British land revenue officers believed that by removing taluqdars they would be able to settle the land with the actual owners of the soil and thus reduce the levels of exploitation of peasants while increasing revenue returns for the state. But this did not happen in practice : revenue flows for the state increased but the burden of demand on the peasants did not decline. In areas like Awadh where resistance during 1857 was intense and long lasting, the fighting was carried out by taluqdars and their peasants.

(iv) Zamindars lost their traditional land holdings. Their forts were destroyed and troops were banned. They loss their comforts of life and luxurious life style. They were given due regards by Nawab of the Awadh and they had very good hold over their people.

The Indian national movement and the events of 1857.

(i) The revolt as considered by the Indians, great authors and the historians as the First War of Indian Independence from British imperialism. It paved the way for the rise of national movement. It was the source of inspiration which boosted the moral strength of the people and it gave courage to face the repressive methods of the British and they won freedom in 1947.

(ii) The revolt of 1857 ended an era and sowed the seeds of a new era. The era of territorial expansion gave the way of the era of economic exploitation. The small Rajas, zamindars, princes who gave threat to the British ruler, who were creating problems now then were once for all to an end. Now the British government have to face the progressive India from where they could profit a lot.

(a) The rebels wanted to restore the pre-British world of the 18th century.

(b) Arrangements were made to various posts.

(c) Arrangements were also made for collection of land revenue and the payment of troops.

(d) Plans were made to fight battles against the British.

(e) Chains of command were laid down in the army. In doing so, they looked back to the traditions which had prevailed earlier in 18th century India, a world they had now lost to British rule.

(a) In the years preceding the 1857 uprising the sepoys relationship with their superior white officers underwent a major change. In the 1820’s white officers made it a point to maintain friendly relations with the sepoys.

(b) They would participate their leisure activities wrestle, fence with them and even go out hawking with them. The officers were both disciplinarians and father figures to them.

(c) In the 1840’s, however, the officers began to feel that the sepoys were racially inferior to them and began to feel superior to them.

(d) They treated them with contempt and abused and hit them without any reason.

(e) A distance began to grow between the sepoys and officers. Trust was replaced by suspicion. The episode of the greased cartridges was a classic example of this.

(a) The mutinies began with a particular signal either the firing of the evening gun or the sounding of the bugle.

(b) The sepoys first seized the arms arsenal and then plundered the treasury.

(c) They then attacked government buildings–the jail, telegraph office etc. burning all the records.

(d) Proclamations were put in the cities in all languages - Hindi, Urdu and Persian calling upon the people to rise and kill the Britishers.

(e) After ordinary people joined the revolt, their targets of attack widened. In many towns, the houses of the moneylenders and the rich were looted and destroyed. There was a general defiance of all kinds of authority.

(a) Art and literature and the writing of history has helped to keep alive memories of 1857. The leaders of the revolt have been depicted as heroes who succeeded in arousing the people against the oppressive rule of the British.

(6) Films and posters have helped create the image of Rani Lakshmi Bai as a masculine warrior. She is usually portrayed in battle armour, with a sword in hand and riding a

horse—a symbol of the determination to resist injustice and foreign rule.

(c) The pictorial images produced by the British and Indians - paintings, pencil drawings, posters, cartoons, etc., form an important record of the mutiny. In particular, British pictures offering a variety of images have provoked a range of different emotions and reactions.

(d) Some of them commemorate the British heroes who saved the English and repressed the rebels. An example of this type was ‘Relief of Lucknow’ painted by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859. It depicts the efforts of James Outram, Henry Havelock and Colin Campbell in rescuing the besieged British garrison in Lucknow. The siege of Lucknow according to British accounts became a story of survival, heroic resistance and the triumph of British power.

These tell us about the fears and anxieties of officials and their perception of the rebels. The stories of the revolt that were published in British newspapers and magazines narrated in agony detail the violence of the mutineers and these stories inflamed public feelings and provoked demands of retribution and revenge.

It is well known to all, that in this age the people of Hindustan, both Hindus and Mohammedans, are being ruined under the tyranny and the oppression of the infidel and treacherous English. It is therefore the bounden duty of all the wealthy people of India, especially those who have any sort of connection with the Mohammedan Royal families and are considered the pastors and masters of their people, to stake, their lives and property for the well-being of the public.

The proclamations completely rejected everything associated with British rule or firangi raj as they called it. The condemned the British for the annexations they had carried out and the treaties they had broken. The British, the rebel leaders said, could not be trusted.

The rebels tried to support of all sections of the society irrespective of their caste and creed. The rebellion was viewed as a war is which both the communities stood. Hindus and Muslims stood equally to gain or loose. The amicable relations which existed between the two communities were emphasized. The ishtahars brought to the forefront memories of the pre-British Hindu-Muslim past. Thus religious differences were not visible between the two communities in 1857 despite British attempts to create a wedge between them. In this way, the rebels tried to materialise their vision of unity.

The dispossession of taluqdars meant the breakdown of an entire social order.

(i) The ties of loyalty and patronage that had bound the peasant to the taluqdar were disrupted.

(ii) In pre-British times, the taluqdars were oppressors but many of them also appeared to be generous father figures. They extracted a variety of dues from the peasants but were often considerated in times of need.

(iii) Under British the peasants were directly exposed to over assessment of revenue and inflexible methods of collection. There was no longer any guarantee that in times of hardship or crop failure the revenue demand of the state would be reduced or collection postponed; or that in times of festivities the peasants would get the loan and support that the taluqdar had earlier provided.

Rumours in 1857 made sense in context of the policies pursued by the British from late 1820’s as follows:

(i) Reforms of william Bentinck in education. Introduction of western ideas and institutions.

(ii) Reforms like abolition of sati.

(iii) Annexation of Awadh on the basis of mis-governance.

(iv) Annexation of Jhansi and Satara-British refused to recognize adoption.

(v) Reforms like Widow Remarriage Act.

(vi) Reforming socio-religious customs like landholding, inheritance etc.

(vii) Activities of Christian missionaries.

Rumours had an impact on the minds of people under these uncertain times.

British land revenue officials thought that if they could remove taluqdars then they could give land to their actual owners. It will reduce the level of exploitation of peasants and it will increase the revenue returns for the state. But actually this did not happen. There was a definite increase of revenue return for the state but the burden of demand on peasants remained the same. Officials soon came to know that most of the areas of Awadh were actually heavily overassessed. At some places the increase of revenue demanded was from 30% to 70%. That’s why neither taluqdars and nor peasants were happy. The result of dispossession of taluqdars was the breakdown of whole of the social order. The ties of loyalty and patronage were disrupted which had bounded the peasants to the taluqdars.

The following causes were responsible for the mutiny of Indian soldiers in 1857:

(i) The Indian soldiers were given the Enfield rifles. The cartridges of this rifle were coated with the fat of cows and pigs. The soldiers felt that when they would bite these bullets, it would corrupt their caste and religion.

(ii) In many cantonments, the Indian soldiers refused to use the flour which had the bone dust of cows and pigs.

(iii) A law was passed in 1857 according to which the Indian soldiers could be sent across the sea to fight against any enemy. During those days, many Hindu soldiers considered it a sin against religion to go across the sea.

(iv) The Indian soldiers were maltreated during the parade. The Indians could not bear this humiliation and insult for long.

(v) There was discontentment among the Indian soldiers as they were paid less salary than their counterparts in the British. They also faced difficulty in getting leave.

(vi) The British officials often poked fun at the culture and civilisation of the Indian soldiers. So the Indian soldiers wanted to avenge their insult.

(vii) When Mangal Pandy, a soldier, was given cartridges coated with the fat of cows and pigs, he felt infuriated and killed a British official. So he was sentenced to death for this crime. It spread a wave of anger among all Indian soldiers. As a result, they rose in rebellion against the British.

(i) The two people were Tantia Tope and Nana Sahib.

(ii) Lakshmi Bai joined the revolt when the British annexed her state due to application of the Doctrine of Lapse policy.

(a) She fought valiantly at the head of her troops and her bravery and courage have inspired her countrymen ever since.

(b) After being driven out of Jhansi she captured Gwalior with the help of Tantia Tope and her trusted Afghan guards.

(c) The brave Rani died on 17th June 1858 with her life-long friend and companion, a Muslim girl.

The following were the general causes for the Revolt of 1857 :

(i) Many Indians had turned against the British because of the policy of Lapse initiated by Lord Dalhousie.

(ii) The British considered India as a market for raw material of factories in England. So they made many efforts to destroy the Indian trade and industry. It increased poverty in the country. So the people started despising the British rule.

(iii) The Indian sepoys had a feeling of discontentment against the imperial rule. They got low salary as compared to the British soldiers. They were also maltreated. They could not bear this insult for long.

(iv) In 1856, the soldiers were given the new ‘Enfield’ Rifles. The cartridges of these rifles ere coated with the fat of cows and pigs. So the Indian soldiers refused to accept and use these cartridges. Slowly and steadily this incident led to the emergence of the Revolt of 1857.

Subsidiary Alliance was a system of land revenue introduced by Lord Wellesley in 1798. All the local rulers had to accept following terms and conditions who entered into such an alliance with the British:

(i) The ally would have to keep a British armed contingent in his territory.

(ii) The British would be responsible for protection of their ally from any type of external and internal threats to their power.

(iii) Resources for maintaining the British contingent would be provided by the ally.

(iv) The ally could not enter into the agreement with other local rulers or foreign companies or engage in warfare without the permission of the British.

(v) One British Resident would be stationed in the court of the ally king.

(i) Arrival of first group of sepoys in Delhi : The sepoys of the cantonment of Meerut arrived at the gates of the Red Fort early in the morning on 11th May. It was the month of Ramzan the Muslim holy month of prayer and fasting. The old Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah, had just finished his prayers and meal before the sun rose and the fast began. He heard the commotion at the gates. The sepoys who had gathered under his window told him, “We have come from Meerut after killing all the English men there, because they asked us to bite bullets that were coated with the fat of cows and pigs with our teeth. This has corruped the faith of Hindus and Muslims alike.”

(ii) Reaching of second group of sepoys : Another group of sepoys also entered Delhi and the ordinary people of the city joined them. Europeans were killed in large numbers and the rich people of Delhi were attacked and looted.

(iii) End of British control over Delhi for some time : It was clear that Delhi has gone out of British control. Some sepoys rode into the Red Fort, without observing the elaborate court etiquette expected of them. They demanded that the emperor give them his blessings.

(iv) Bahadur Shah’s blessing to the rebels : Surrounded by the sepoys, Bahadur Shah had no other option but to comply. The revolt thus acquired a kind of legitimacy because it could now be carried on in the name of the Mughal emperor.

Awadh was one of the major centres of the Revolt of 1857. It was because of the following reasons:

(i) Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was the beloved and popular leader of the people. But the British dethroned him. They accused him of misgovernance and sent him on exile to Calcutta. It increased discontentment among the people.

(ii) The British army recruited a large number of sepoys from the villages of Awadh. These sepoys were given low wages. They also faced difficulty in getting leave. So they felt discontent and unhappy at the events that happened in Awadh.

(iii) The sepoys of Awadh were also enraged because of the greased cartridges.

(i) Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi is usually portrayed as one of the bravest women of early phase of modern (or British) India.

Only a few people have the courage to stand against injustice. One can easily imagine the plight of women when even the menfolk suffer meekly the indignities and the acts of injustice. But Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi took up arms when the English annexed her kingdom of Jhansi and gave them a bitter fight. In the end she laid her life like a brave heroine on the altar of her motherland but did not bow to injustice.

(ii) Rani Lakshmi Bai was very popular among the people of her state. Most of the historians point out her as a great brave lady of the time but some unsucessfully try to this figure his brave deeds just by putting the fact in wrong manner that she was only worried about her own family and state.

Lord Dalhousie’s annexations created disaffection in all the areas and principalities that were annexed by him:

(i) In 1851, Governor General Lord Dalhousie describe the kingdom of Awadh as “a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day”. Five year later, in 1856, the kindgom was formally annexed to the British Empire.

(ii) In the meantime the British became increasingly interested in acquiring the territory of Awadh. They felt that the soil there was good for producing indigo and cotton, and the region was ideally located to be developed into the principal market of upper India.

(iii) Lord Dalhousie’s annexations created disaffection in all the areas and principalities that were annexed but nowswhere more so than in the kingdom of Awadh in the heart of North India. Here, Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was dethroned and exiled to Calcutta on the plea that the region was being misgoverned.

(iv) The widespread sense of grief and loss at the Nawab’s exile was recorded by many contemporary observers.

(v) This emotional upheaval was aggravated by immediate material losses. The removal of the Nawab led to the dissolution of the court and its culture.

(vi) A chain of grievances in Awadh linked prince, taluqdar, peasant and sepoy. In different ways they came to identify firangi raj with the end of their world – the breakdown of things they valued, respected and held dear. A whole complex of emotions and issues, traditions and loyalties worked themselves out in the Revolt of 1857.

(vii) The annexation displaced not just the Nawab, it also disposed the taluqdars of the region.

(viii) The British land revenue policy eliminated the position and authority of the taluqdars.

(ix) The dispossession of taluqdars meant the breakdown of an entire social order. The ties of loyalty and patronage that had bound the peasant to the taluqdar were disrupted.

I. Religious and Social Causes:

(a) Mass Conversion to Christianity : In the schools set up by the Christian missionaries the teaching of Christian doctrines was made compulsory. The “Bible” was taught in all the institutions including in government schools. Christianity was instructed even in jails. The officers openly taught Christianity in the mosques and temples. This attitude of the English gave fear in the minds of the Indians that they may converted into Christianity.

(b) Abolition of Social Customs and Traditions : The practice of sati was abolished, polygamy, child-marriage and infanticide were prohibited, widow-remarriage was legalized. So the Maulvis and Pandits began to raise the cry “Our religion and customs are in grave danger”. The people also believed that the government was unnecessarily interfering in their social and religious matters.

(c) Introduction of Telegraph and Railways : The English introduced telegraph and railways in India to quicken their administrative works in an eminent way. They also introduced western education in India in order to educate and train the Indians to be appointed in inferior posts to help them in their administration. This had created suspicion and fear in the minds of people. They thought that these things were introduced to spread Christianity.

II. Economic Exploitation of India:

(i) The British enriched themselves at the cost of the Indians. India’s wealth was carried away by them.

(ii) Indian economy was subordinated to meet the needs of the British trade and industry.

(iii) Heavy duties were levied on Indian goods which were exported. So they could not compete in the world markets.

(iv) Indian farmers were forced to cultivate cash crops which was consumed by the British industries whereas the Indian industries declined and famine occurred frequently as the less production of foodgrains.

(v) As Lord William Bentinck took the land free states from Bengal landlords they become unrest and discontent.

(vi) The annexation politics of the British left lakhs and lakhs of soldiers and officers unemployed who joined the revolt.

(vii) The British did nothing to improve the Indian trade and industry. The growing poverty of the masses and frequent famine spread discontent. They became desperate and joined the revolt hoping to improve their conditions.

(i) Mutinies began at Cantonment of Meerut : The sepoys in the cantonment of Meerut broke out in mutiny on the late afternoon of 10th May 1857. Mutiny began in the lines of the native infantry. It very quickly spread to the cavalry and then in the city. The ordinary people of surrounding villages and the towns also joined the sepoys. The sepoys captured the bell of arms where arms and ammunition were kept. Then they attacked the white people and started to burn their bunglows and property. The record office, court, jail, treasury, post-office etc. were plundered and destroyed. The telegraph line joining Delhi with Meerut was cut down. As darkness descended, many sepoys (a group) rode on horses towards Delhi.

(ii) Delhi : The group of sepoys arrived at the gates of the Red Fort on the early morning of 11th May, 1857. It was the holy month of Ramzan in which Muslims pray and have the fasts. Mughal emperor heard the commotion at the gates of Red Fort. The sepoys told him that they had come from Meerut after killing all the Englishmen there, because they asked them to bite bullets which were coated with the fat of cows and pigs with their teeth. They also told him that it will corrupt the faith of Hindus and Muslims. Then another group of sepoys also entered the Delhi. Ordinary people of Delhi also joined them. A large number of Europeans were killed. Rich people of Delhi were attacked and looted. Delhi had gone out of control of the British. Some sepoys even entrered the Red Fort and demanded the blessing of emperor. Bahadur Shah was surrounded by sepoys and left with no option but to comply. In this way revolt acquired a type of legitimacy because now it could be carried on in the name of Mughal emperor.

(iii) Spread of Revolt : Sepoys began their activities with any specific signal. At many places this signal was firing of the evening gun and at many places it was sounding of the bugle. First of all bell of arms were seized and treasury was plundered. Then they attacked and burnt the government buildings i.e. the jail, treasury, bunglows, record room, telegraph offices and burnt all the records.

The targets of attack widened when ordinary people began joining the revolt. Money-lenders and rich people became the objects of rebel wrath in major towns like Kanpur, Lucknow and Bareilly. They were considered not only as oppressors by the peasants but were seen as allies of the British. Houses of rich were looted and destroyed at many places. The mutiny of sepoys became a rebellion very quickly.

(iv) Awadh : The most dangerous form of the revolt was seen in Awadh where Nawab was removed by the British on the issue of misgovernance. Here the leader of revolt was young son of Nawab Birjis Qadr.

I. Military causes of the Revolt of 1857:

(a) Low Salary and Less Chance of Promotion : The Indian soldiers in the British army were treated differently from their English counterparts. The Indian sepoys were not allowed to get their bhattas etc. if they had actively involved in duties other than their headquarters. As per the Post Office Act of 1854 the privilege of sending letters on free of cost to their relatives was stopped. The Indian sepoys could rise upto the rank of Subedar above this all the other ranks were reserved for the British sepoys. At the same time salary to the Indian sepoys was much less than their counterparts. The English sepoys never mixed with the Indian sepoys.

(b) Ratio of Indian troops and British troops : The disparity between the Indian troops and British troops was very high. In the Indian army there were 2,33,000 native troops and 45,322 British troops.

(c) Uneven distribution of troops : The British troops were not properly distributed. Important places like Delhi and Allahabad had no British troops. Apart from this England was engaged in many wars with the European countries, China and Persia. So the British troops were divided and sent to these battle fields. Knowing the difficulty of the British the Indian soldiers determined to strike as it was a very suitable opportunity for them.

II. Immediate Cause of the Revolt : The immediate cause of the revolt was the introduction of Enfield Rifles. The new type of cartridges to be used for the rifle were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. As we know that the cow is the sacred animal for the Hindus and the Muslims consider the pig as a forbidden animal. So the sepoys refused to touch the greased cartridges. The information about the greased cartridges spread like a wild-fire. The soldiers those who refused to use those cartridges were sentenced to ten years imprisonment. On 9th May 1857 they were publicly degraded and deprived of their uniforms and they were put in jail.

This incident created panic among the soldiers of the Bengal Army. On 10th May in Meerut all the sepoys broke into open revolt. They broke open the gates of the jail where their comrades were put and released them. Apart from this they also released the other prisoners from the jail. They killed all the Europeans and set fire to their houses. Thus started the Revolt of 1857.

(i) From the medievel period i.e., from the time of foreign invasion, then the Mughal invasion and after the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India, the Hindus and Muslims began to live together. The Indian way of life, art, architecture, literature, language, music, culture, etc. began to influence on the Islamic culture, music, art, architecture, etc. and began to influence on the Indian art and architecture etc. Moreover the Muslims settled in India and they had become one with the Indians as a result both the Hindus and the Muslims had common way of life. One cannot depart from the other. That is why, when the problem arose for their survival they both began to fight together to remove the yoke of foreign rule i.e., the British rule. The Hindus never felt the Mughal rule as a foreign rule because the Mughals did not differentiate themselves from the Indians as the way the English did with the Indians.

(ii) The Hindu-Muslim unity played an important role in the Revolt of 1857. The Hindu as well as the Muslim soldiers had enrolled in the British army. They both had faced the common problem i.e., the greased cartridges. These cartridges were to be bitten before they were loaded into the rifles. These cartridges were greased with the fat of cows and pigs, which hurt the religious feelings of the Hindus and the Muslims, so they protested against them. Now the Hindu and the Muslim soldiers had one common enemy i.e., the British. It brought both the Hindu and Muslim sepoys together. So they declared Bahadur Shah as their leader and marched together from Meerut to Delhi.

(iii) Similarly, Rani Lakshmi Bai was escorted by the Afghan nobles. Maulvi Ahmadullah led the revolt in Faizabad and whenever the Muslims succeeded in raising the revolt, they showed full respect to the religious sentiments of their Hindu brothers and they stopped the slaughter of cows. This kind of Hindu-Muslim unity and cooperation lasted longer till the British decided to divide them with their policy of ‘divide and rule’ as they found it would be difficult for them to continue their rule if the Hindus and the Muslims are united.

(iv) For a long time the Hindus and the Muslims were fed up with the attitudes of the English. After the famine of 1837 the poor and the hungry people, the servants of the Company and the sepoys were compelled to convert into Christianity. Laws were passed to suppress sati and infanticide which affected the religious sentiments of the Hindus. At the same time the last Mughal ruler was deprived of his title, and his wife and children were not given the pension which was promised by the English which infuriated the Muslims.

(v) Moreover the Hindu and the Muslim soldiers were discriminated against in their salaries and promotion comparatively with the Englisn sepoys. The Hindu and the Muslim soldiers were regarded inferior to the European soldiers. So we can come to a easy conclusion that the sentimental unity in the social, moral and military spheres and their common sufferings in the hands of the British brought unity among the Hindus and the Muslims.

(a) The pictorial images produced by the British and Indians - paintings, pencil drawings, posters, cartoons etc. form an important record of the mutiny. In particular, British picutes offering a variety of images have provoked a range of different emotions and reactions.

(b) Some of them commemorate the British heroes who saved the English and repressed the rebels. An example of this type was ‘Relief of Lucknow’ painted by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859. It depicts the efforts of James Outrom, Henry Havelock and Colin Campbell in rescuing the besieged British garrison in Lucknow.

(c) The dead and injured in the foreground of the picture indicate the sufferings which occurred during the siege. While the triumphant figures of horses in the middle ground emphasised the fact that British rule had been restablished. This reassured the British people that the rebellion had been crushed and the British were victorious.

(d) Newspapers reported incidents of violence against women and children which led to demands for revenge and retribution. Artists gave expression to these feelings through their visual representations of trauma and suffering.

(e) “In memoriam” painted by Joseph Noel Paton portrays helpless English women and children huddled in a circle awaiting their fate at the hands of the rebels. It represents the rebels as violent seeks to provoke anger and fury.

(f) In certain sketches and paintings women are depicted as heroic and defending themselves against the rebels as did Miss Wheeler.

(g) Threatened by the rebellion, the British felt the need to demonstrate their invincibility. In one image a female figure of justice with a sword in one hand and a shield in the other is shown. Her posture is aggressive and her face expresses anger and a desire for revenge. She is shown trampling sepoys under her feet while Indian women and children hide from her.

(h) This urge for vengeance led the rebels to be executed in brutal ways. They were flown from guns or hanged from the gallows. Images of these executions were widely found in popular journals.

The Revolt of 1857 was of a formidable nature but it failed due to various reasons:

1. Lack of good and effective leadership : The great leaders like Bahadur Shah, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Kunwar Singh, etc. who brave fought to overthrow the British empire. But these leaders were not as trained and good commanders who suppressed the revolt like Lawrence, Campbell, Havelock, Outram, etc. The activities of Indian leaders were confined to a narrow area and extended over a short brief period.

2. The mutiny was not centralised : The mutiny was not centralised and occurred only in some places. R. C. Mazumdar says, “It was never in all India character but was localised, restricted and poorly orgainsed.” The mutiny had not spread in South India. Punjab, Rohilkhand, Awadh, Bihar and Western Bengal were the areas where the mutiny had spread. Some of the feudal princes like the Rajas of Patiala, Jind, Gwalior, Hyderabad helped its suppression.

3. Lack of Resources : The resources of the British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels. Even though the British was engaged in so many wars before the revolt. The Chinese and the Crimean wars had been concluded by 1856 and the British troops around 1,12,000 were poured into India from many parts of the world.

Apart from this the British had also recruited 3,10,000 additional Indian soldiers in India. The rebels did not possess the modern weapons like the British troops. They fought with swords and spears. The electric telegraph kept the commander in chief informed about the movements of the Indian rebels and their strategy. The British which had colonies throughout the world derived its resources to suppress the revolt with men and money powers, whereas the rebels lacked man power and money which was a major set back for the revolt.

4. The Revolt was poorly organised : The leaders of the revolt like Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Kunwar Singh, etc. were not lacking in bravery, but were deficient in experience, organising ability and concerted operation. Surprise attacks and the guerilla tactics of Tantia Tope and other leaders could not win them their lost independence. When the revolt was suppressed the Government of India and the provincial governments appointed various commissions and boards to find out the scheme of plan of the rebels, but they could not find out any preplan of the revolutionaries before the occurrence and after it.

5. The rebels had no common ideals : The rebels had only anti-foreign sentiments except that they did not have any common ideals. When the rebels marched into Delhi, they captured it and they proclaimed Bahadur Shah the Emperor at Delhi. At the same time Nana Sahib was proclaimed as the Peshwa of Kanpur | and Gwalior. Hindu-Muslim differences lay dormant against the common enemy, but were not dead. The peasants and the lower caste people did not show any sympathy for the rebels. In the Bombay and Madras Presidencies the lower class people who were recruited into the British troops remained loyal to the British. The Hindus wanted to set up a Maratha rule while the Muslims wanted to revive the Mughal kingdom. The selfishness of the revolt sapped the strength of the revolt.

(i) On 15 May, 1857 one house of a money-lander was burnt down; about a dozen were forcibly broken into and completely gutted of their content. Account papers, bonds, grains, country cloth were burnt in the street where heaps of ashes are still to be seen.

(ii) (a) Due to Ryotwari system on Saturday

15 May 1875 in Supa several houses of moneylenders were burnt or forcibly broken completely.

(b) Account papers of moneylenders, bonds signed by the farmers, heaps of grains, country cloth were burnt in the streets of Supa. The heaps of ashes could be seen for several days.

(iii) The British reacted immediately after receiving a written report from the

District Magistrate of Poona. The Police Commissioner despatched the force.

(iv) The Ryotwari system led to revolts due to following reasons :

(a) The first new revenue settlement after the Permanent Settlement of Bengal was made in Bombay Deccan in the 1820s. The revenue that was demanding by the English was very high. Due to pressure of high demand of revenue at many places poor peasants deserted their native villages. They migrated to new area. In these regions of poor soil and fluctuating rainfall the problem was particularly acute.

(b) When rains failed and harvest were poor they found it not to possible to pay the revenue to the Company. They were forced to take loan from local moneylenders, traders or sahukars.

(c) The Company use to sent its own representative for the collection of revenue dues. These collectors incharge of revenue collection were keen on demonstrating and pleasing their superiors. So they went about extracting payment with utmost severity. 2. What taluqdars thought ? The attitude of the taluqdars was best expressed by Hanwant Singh, the Raja of Kalakankar, near Rae Bareli. During the mutiny, Hanwant Singh had given shelter to a British officer and conveyed him to safety. While taking leave of the officer, Hanwant Singh told him : Sahib, your countrymen came into this country and drove out our King. You sent your officers round the districts to examine the titles to the estates. At one blow you took from me lands which from time immemorial had been in my family. I submitted. Suddenly misfortune fell upon you. The people of the land rose against you. You came to me whom you had despoiled. I have saved you. But now – now I march at the head of my retainers to Lucknow to try and drive you from the country. (C.B.S.E. 2008 Foreign)

Dalhousie’s policy of annexation of Awadh were:

(i)Dalhousie described the kingdom of Awadh as “a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day “. The conquest happened in stages. The Subsidiary Alliance had been imposed on Awadh in 1801.

(ii) By the terms of this alliance the Nawab had to disband his military force , allow the British to position their troops within the kingdom , and act in accordance with the advice of the British Resident who was attached to the court. Thus the Nawab became dependent on British.

(iii)The British became interested in acquiring Awadh as its soil was good for producing Indigo and cotton, and the region was ideally located to be developed into the principal market of Upper India.

Explanations:

 (i) The British were unwilling to tolerate the power of Taluqdars. Immediately after the annexation, the taluqdars were disarmed and their forts destroyed.

 (ii) The British land revenue policy further undermined the position and authority of the taluqdars.

 (iii) The Summary Settlements proceeded to remove the taluqdars wherever possible.

 (iv) It was based on the assumption that the taluqdars were interlopers with permanent stakes in land.

 (v) The ties of loyalty and patronage that had bound the peasants to the taluqdars were disrupted.

(a) The kind of injustice experienced by the ryots:

(i) Violation of customary norms by moneylenders.

(i) A high rate of interest charged by the money lenders.

(iii) Moneylenders were being insensitive to their plight.

(b) The reasons:

(i) They were powerful, devious, manipulative and deceitful.
(ii) They had support of the police and the government.

(iii) Peasants were illiterate.

(c) The commission that investigated petitions and grievances of the concerned people was called the Deccan Riots Commission.

(i) It was supposed to investigate the causes and petitions of ryohts.

(ii) The commission held inquiries in the district where riots spread.
                                                                          OR

(a) There was the breakdown in the routine activities.

(b) From the gardens inside the city some produce does reach a few places but the poor and the middle class can only lick their lips and watch them (as they are earmarked for the select) .
(c) People were facing shortages of vegetables, only rotten vegetables were available. People were not able to earn. There was disease, death and decay in the city. Water carriers had stopped carrying water.

The provisions of Subsidiary Alliance imposed on Awadh in 1801 by the British:

(i) Nawab had to disband his military force.

(ii) The British positioned their troops within the kingdom.

(iii) The Kings had to act in accordance with the advice of the British Resident who was attached to the court.

(iv) King was deprived of his armed forces.

(v) Nawab became increasingly dependent on the British to maintain law and Order.

”The annexation of Awadh displaced not just the Nawab but also dispossessed the taluqdars of the region, causing break down of an entire social order.”

(i) The countryside of Awadh was dotted with the estates and forts of taluqdars who for many generations had controlled land and power in the countryside.

(ii) Before the coming of the British, taluqdars maintained armed retainers, built forts, and enjoyed a degree of autonomy, as long as they accepted the suzerainty of the Nawab and paid the revenue of their taluqas.

(iii) Some of the bigger taluqdars had as many as 12,000 foot soldiers and even the smaller ones had about 200.

(iv) The British were unwilling to tolerate the power of the taluqdars. Immediately after the annexation, the taluqdars were disarmed and their forts destroyed.

(v) The British land revenue policy further undermined the position and authority of the taluqdars. After annexation, the first British revenue settlement, known as the Summary Settlement of 1856, was based on the assumption that the taluqdars were interlopers with no permanent stakes in land: they had established their hold over land through force and fraud.

Lord Dalhousie’s policy of annexation:

i. Imposition of Subsidiary Alliance reduced the powers of the Nawab. Soon after the Nawab was dethroned by the British and exiled on the basis of misgovernment. Many people followed the Nawab when he left Lucknow

ii. Dissolution of the court and its culture led many people to lost their livelihood. There was widespread sense of grief and loss

iii. The sepoys of the British army who came from Awadh carried over their grievances to the sepoy lines

iv. The new land revenue system introduced by the British imposed high taxes and was unpopular. The dissatisfaction resulted in a popular revolt. 

Rumors and prophesies played a part in moving people to action:

(i) They told that bullets coated with the fat of cows & pigs and that biting those bullets would corrupt their caste and religion. They were referring to the cartridges of the Enfield rifles which had just been given to them.

(ii) The rumours said, the British had mixed the bone dust of cows and pigs into the flour that was sold in the market. In towns and cantontments, sepoys and the common people refused to touch the atta.

(iii) There was fear and suspicion that the British wanted to convert Indians to Christianity.

(iv) The response to the call for action was reinforced by the prophecy that British rule would come to an end on the centenary of the Battle of Plassey, on 23 June 1857.

The measures taken to keep the unity among the rebels during 1857 were:

(i) Many of the proclamations were issued by Muslim princes or in their names but even these took care to adress the sentiments of Hindus.

(ii) The rebellion was seen as a war in which both Hindus and Muslims had equally to lose or gain.

(iii) The ishtahars harked back to the pre-British Hindu-Muslim past and glorified the coexistence of different communities under the Mughal Empire.

(iv) The proclamation that was issued under the name of Bahadur shah appealed to the people to join the fight under the standards of both Muhammad and Mahavir.

The British tried to suppress the rebellion by:

(i) Passing number of Acts, which not only had put the whole of North India under martial law but military officers and even ordinary Britons were given the power to try and punish Indians suspected of rebellion.

(ii) The ordinary processes of law and trial were suspended and it was put out that rebellion would have only one punishment-death.

(iii) Reinforcements were brought in from Britain and the British mounted a two-pronged attack.

(iv) The British used military on a gigantic scale. Rebel landholders were dispossessd and the loyal rewarded.

Measures adopted by the rebels of 1857 to ensure unity
(i) The rebel proclamations in 1857 repeatedly appealed for unity to all sections of the population, irrespective of their caste and creed.
(ii) Many of the proclamations (Azamgarh) were issued by Muslim princes or in their names but even these took care to address the sentiments of Hindus.
(iii) The rebellion was seen as a war in which both Hindus and Muslims had equally to lose or gain.
(iv) The ishtahars harked back to the pre-British Hindu-Muslim past and glorified the coexistence of different communities under the Mughal Empire.
(v) The proclamation that was issued under the name of Bahadur Shah appealed to the people to join the fight under the standards of both Muhammad and Mahavir.
(vi) Every aspect of British rule was attacked and the firangi accused of destroying a way of life that was familiar and cherished. 
(vii) The rebels failed the attempt of the British govt. for inciting Hindu population against Muslims.
(viii) The rebels wanted to restore world of peace and unity.
(ix) Various sections of the Indian society promoted common good.
(x) Fears and suspicion amongst people that the brutish would destroy their faiths and convictions.
(xi) Fear and suspicion that British wanted Indian to convert Indian to Christianity.
(xii) They maintained communication links with sepoys.
(xiii) Local leaders played a significant role in keeping the unity