Themes In Indian History Ii Chapter 9 Kings And Chronicles : The Mughal Courts

All the Mughal books were manuscripts. In other words, they were handwritten. The centre where the work of manuscript production was taken was known as the imperial kitabkhana. This Kitabkhana was like a library. It was a scriptorium. In other words, it was a place where the emperor kept his collection of manuscripts and produced new manuscripts.

A large number of people were involved in the creation of manuscript. They included the following:

(i) Paper makers who prepared the folios of the manuscript.

(it) Scribes or calligraphers who copied the texts.

(iii) Guilders who illuminated the pages of the manuscript.

(iv) Painters who illustrated scenes from the text.

(v) Book binders who gathered the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.

In the end, all these manuscripts were considered very precious and invaluable. They were a work of beauty and intellectual wealth.

In the Mughal court, king was always the centre of all attractions during the daily routine and special activities. Every activity or festivity exposed the power of the king. The following examples can be cited in this regard:
(i) Discipline in the Court : There were precise rules to determine the status amongst the Mughal elites. The elites having proximity to the king were accorded an important place in the court. There was a perfect discipline in the court. Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was allowed to move from his seat. Besides no one could leave the court without permission.

(ii)    Forms of Address and Courtesies:

All had to follow norms in the court. They had to follow the norms of address, courtesies and speech which were acceptable in court. Even a slightest deviation in etiquettes fetched punishment on the spot.

(iii)    The Forms of Salutation : There were many forms of salutation in the court. They indicated the status of the person in the hierarchy. The deeper prostration represented higher status. The complete prostration or sijda meant the highest form of submission. However under the reign of Shah Jahan, these rituals were replaced with Chahar Taslim and Zaminbos i.e. kissing the ground.

(iv)    Jharoka Darshan : The Jharoka Darshan was introduced by Akbar. He wanted to broaden the popular faith in the imperial authority. After performing his devotional prayers, he would go to a small balcony facing the east. The crowd of people comprising of soldiers, merchants, peasants, craft persons and women had the view of the emperor. It was called the Jharoka Darshan.

The role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire:

(i)   In the Mughal household a distinction was maintained between wives who came from royal families (begams), and other wives (aghas) who were not of noble birth. The begams, married after receiving huge amounts of cash and valuables as dower (mahr), naturally received a higher status and greater attention from their husbands than did aghas.

(ii)   The concubines (aghacha or the lesser agha) occupied the lowest position in the hierarchy of females intimately related to royalty. They all received monthly allowances in cash, supplemented with gifts according to their status.

(iii)   The lineage-based family structure was not entirely static. The agha and the aghacha could rise to the position of a begam depending on the husbands’s will, and provided that he did not already have four wives. Love and motherhood played important roles in elevating such women to the status of legally wedded wives.

(iv)   Apart from wives, numerous male and female slaves populated the Mughal household. The tasks they performed varied from the most mundane to those requiring skill, tact and intelligence. Slave eunuchs (khwajasara) moved between the external and internal life of the household as guards, servants, and also as agents for women dabbling in commerce.

(v)   After Nur Jahan, Mughal queens and princesses began to control significant financial resources. Shall Jahan’s daughters Jahanara and Roshanara enjoyed an annual income often equal to that of high imperial mansabdars. Jahanara, in addition, received revenues from the port city of Surat, which was a lucrative centre of overseas trade.

1. Iran and Turan : The political and diplomatic relations between the Mughal kings and the neighbouring countries of Iran and Turan hinged on the control of the frontier defined by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan from the regions of Iran and Central Asia.
2. To control strategic out-posts (such on Kabul and Qandhar) : All conquerors who sought to make their way into the Indian subcontinent had to cross the Hindukush to have access to north India. A constant aim of Mughal policy was to ward off this potential danger by controlling strategic outposts-notably Kabul and Qandhar.
3. Qandhar as a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals: Qandhar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals. The fortress-town had initially been in the possession of Humayun, reconquered in 1595 by Akbar. While the Safavid court retained diplomatic relations with the Mughals, it continued to stake claims to Qandhar. In 1613 Jahangir sent a diplomatic envoy to the court of Shah Abbas to plead the Mughal case for retaining Qandhar, but the mission failed. In the winter of 1622 a Persian army besieged Qandhar. The ill-prepared Mughal garrison was defeated and had to surrender the fortress and the city to the Safavids.
4.  To have facilities of free movement for Muslim pilgrims and relation with Ottomans:The relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans was marked by the concern to ensure free movement for pilgrims in the territories under Ottoman control. This was especially true for the Hijaz, that part of Ottoman Arabia where the important pilgrim centres of Mecca and Medina were located.
5.    Mughals and Ottomans and Trade (commerce etc.): The Mughal emperors usually combined religion and commerce by exporting valuable merchandise to Aden and Mokha, both Red Sea ports, and distributing the proceeds of the sales in charity to the keepers of shrines and religious men there. However, when Aurangzeb discovered cases of misappropriation of funds sent to Arabia, he favoured their distribution in India which, he thought, “was as much a house of God as Mecca”.

I. Major features of Mughal Provincial Administration:

(i)    Subadar : The division of functions established at the centre was replicated in the provinces (subas) where the ministers had their corresponding subordinates (diwan, bakhshi and sadr). The head of the provincial administration was the governor (subadar) who reported directly to the emperor.

(ii)    Faujdars : The sarkars, into which each suba was divided, often overlapped with the jurisdiction of faujdars (commandants) who were deployed with contingents of heavy cavalry and musketeers in districts. The local administration was looked after at the level of the pargana (subdistrict) by three semi-hereditary officers, the qanungo (keeper of revenue records), the chaudhuri (in charge of revenue collection) and the qazi.

(iii) A large support of staff of different categories such as clerks, accountants, messengers etc : Each department of administration maintained a large support staff of clerks, accountants, auditiors, messengers, and other functionaries who were technically qualified officials, functioning in accordance with standardised rules and procedures, and generating copious written orders and records. Persian was made the language of administration throughout, but local languages were used for village accounts.

II. The control of the provinces of the centre : The Mughal chroniclers usually portrayed the emperor and his court as controlling the entire administrative apparatus down to the village level. Yet, as you have seen, this could hardly have been a process free of tension. The relationship between local landed magnates, the zamindars, and the representatives of the Mughal emperor was sometimes marked by conflicts over authority and a share of the resources. The zamindars often succeeded in mobilising peasant support against the state.

The features of Mughal chronicles:

(i) The Mughal rulers believed in Divine theory of Kingship. They tried to convey this theory and vision through the writing of dynastic history. For this purpose they appoint court- historians to write accounts. These accounts recorded the events of the emperor’s time. In addition, their writers collected vast amounts of information from the regions of the subcontinent to help the rulers govern their domain.

(ii)    Modem historians’ writings in English have termed this genre of texts chronicles, as they present a continuous chronological record of events.

(iii)    Chronicles are an indispensable sources for any scholar wishing to write a history of the Mughals. At one level they were a repository of factual information about the institutions of the Mughal state, painstakingly collected and classified by individuals closely connected with the court.

At the same time these texts were intended as conveyors of meanings that the Mughal rulers sought to impose on their domain. They therefore give us a glimpse into how imperial ideologies were created and disseminated.

(iv)    Chronicles commissioned by the Mughal emperors are an important source for studying the empire and its court. They were written in order to project a vision of an enlightened kingdom to all those who came under its umbrella. At the same time they were meant to convey to those who resisted the rule of the Mughals that all resistance was destined to fail. Also, the rulers wanted to ensure that there was an account of their rule for posterity.

(a) Abul Fazl felt that drawing the likeness of anything is called taswir. He also believed that taswir’s had the power to make inanimate objects lok as if they possessed life.

(b)    Taswir’s according to him not only enhanced the beauty of the book but used in Mughal chronicles possessed special powers of communicating ideas about the kingdom and the king’s power. The use of paintings however caused tension between the rulers and the ulema’s as Islam prohibited the depiction of human beings.

(c)    The visual material present in this chapter does correspond with his description of the taswir, as can be seen from fig. 9.4 depecting a Mughal kitabkhana. Very clearly can be seen the calligraphers using the qalam to copy the text. The paper makers preparing the folios of the manuscripts and the painters illustrating various scenes.

A Mughal kitabkhana

(d) Similarly figure 9.7 showing Jahangir shooting the figure of poverty also contains symbols representing the idea of justice to which Jahangir was dedicated. The chains of justice are shown descending from heaven having been blessed by the gods. Another symbol signifying justice was the motif of the lion and lamb peacefully nestling to each other. This is found in the picture below the king’s feet indicating his love for justice. The divind theory of kingship is depicted by the crown coming down by heaven carried by two angels to be placed on Jahangir’s head.

Jahangir shooting the figure of poverty

(a) The most important pillar of the Mughal state was its nobility. Owing to several factors, the Mughal nobility was a heterogenous body composed of diverse ethnic and religious groups.

(b) This ensured that no faction became large or powerful enough to challange the authority of the state. The nobility has been aptly described as a bouquet of flowers held together by loyalty to the emperor.

(c)    In Akbar’s time Turani and Iranian nobles were prominent. Many had accompanied Humayun while others seeking lucrative careers migrated later to the Mughal court.

(d)    Two groups of Indian origin entered the ranks of Mughal nobility from 1560 onwards— The Rajputs and the Indian Muslims. The first Rajput chief to join was Raja Bharmal Kachhwaha of Amber whose daughter was married to Akbar.

(e)    People who excelled in either education or accountancy were also inducted into the ranks of the nobility. The most famous example was that of Akbar’s finance minister Raja Todarmal who belonged to the Khatri caste.

(f)    Iranians prospered during Jahangir’s reign because his favourite Iranian wife Nurjahan furthered their cause. Aurangzeb continued the policy of appointing Rajputs to high positions. In an attempt to solve the problems in the Deccan Aurengzeb inducted the Marathas into the nobility in large numbers.

(g)    In theory the nobility was not hereditary but purely official in character. A noble had only a life interest in his jagir which reverted to the crown on his death. As a result, the nobles led extravagent lives and squandered away their money. It also prevented the development of an independent hereditary peerage independent of the whims and fancy of the king.

(h)    During the 18th century the character of the nobility deteriorated and they ceased to discharge any useful functions. They became eager for self-advancement which was to plunge the empire into bitter civil wars, confusion and anarchy.

There were many elements that led to the formation of the Mughal period as an ideal ofkingship.

(i)    King as symbol of the Divine Power:

According to many chronicles, the Mughal rulers derived their power directly from God. They were on the top of the list of those who received the light emanating from God (farr-i-izadi). The transmission of the Divine Light to the king made them the source of spiritual guidance for their subjects.

(ii)    Sulh-i-Kul: The source of a unifying force. The Mughal Empire comprised of many religious communities such as the Hindus, the Jainas, the Zoroastrians and the Muslims. However the Mughal kings stood above all religious and ethnic groups. They mediated between people belonging to the different religious communities to ensure peace, stability and justice. According to Abul Fazl, the ideal of Sulh-i-kul was the cornerstone ef enlightened rule and absolute peace. Nobody was permitted to undermine the authority of the state. Similarly all were exhorted not to fight with each other. In fact, the Mughal rulers instructed all their officers to follow the ideal of Sulh-i-kul in administration.

(iii)    Just sovereignty as social contract : Abul Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract. In other words, the emperor protected the following four essences of his subjects:

(a)    Life (Jan)

(b)    Property (mal)

(c)    Honour (namus)

(d)    Faith (din)

In lieu of this protection, people expressed their obedience and submission to the kings. They also contributed their share of resources. As the sovereigns were just, they honoured the contract with power and divine guidance. That is why, many symbols were used by the artists. There was a popular motif of the lion and the lamb. Both lived peacefully in the company of each other. It signified that the Mughal reign was a realm of peace and justice where both the strong and the weak could exist in harmony.

Report comparing the present day system of government with the Mughal court and administration:

(i)    Mughal government was a monarchy. The emperor was all-in-all having all executive, legislature and judiciary powers in himself. He was chief commander of the forces. The position of all ministers were just the government officials of the present day government.

(ii)    Though empire was divided in certain provinces, parganas, districts and villages, yet the all governors were appointed by emperor himself.

(iii) The change of the government was not done by the people as it is done by voters today.

Generally succession was either decided by the emperor or the major courtiers or on the basis of sword of might. The Mughal rulers saw themselves as appointed by Divine will. Now-a-days after every five year or even earlier the head of the state i.e. the president or the head of real administration or government is change by the public through ballot. During the Mughal period sometime throne was smashed by force. The example is of Shershah, who has defeated Humayun and force him leave Hindustan. After the gap of fifteen years he defeated the successor of Shershah and again got his throne. The authority of Akbar, Jahangir and even Shah Jahan was challenged by their own sons or blood relations.

Akbar was a true nationalist ruler. He believed secularism. He abolished the pilgrimage tax because it was against the feeling of the Hindus, who were in majority in his empire. Moreover he felt that the abolish of the pilgrimage tax will create good feelings between the Hindus and the Muslims. They will came nearer to each other. There would be communal harmony in the country.

The forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the person’s status. The highest form of submission was sijda or complete prostration.Under Shah Jahan these rituals were replaced with chahar taslim and Zaminbos (kissing the grounds).

The protocols governing diplomatic envoys at the Mughal court were equally explicit. An ambassador presented to the Mughal emperor was expected to offer an acceptable form of greeting—either by bowing deeply or kissing the ground or else to follow the Persian custom of clasping one’s hands in front of the chest.

he main objective of Akbar behind Jharoka Darshan (appearance on a small balcony of the Agra Fort of Palace), facing the east was broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority as part of popular faith. Below the balcony, a crowd of people (including soldiers, merchants, crafts person, peasants, women with sick children, waited for a view (or the darshan) of Akbar. Sometimes the emperor used to listen the grievances of the people and used to issue essential direction to concerned officials or the person was asked to appear in the Diwan-i-Aam also.

Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) is considered as the greatest of all the Mughal emperors. He not only expanded his empire but also consolidated it. He made his empire the largest, the strongest and the richest kingdom of his time.

Achievements

(i)    He extended the frontiers of his empire to the Hindukush mountains.

(ii)    He checked the expansionist designs of the Uzbeks of Turan and the Safavids of Iran.

With the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 AD, the power of empire diminished. Many regional powers emerged in place of large Mughal empire. Yet symbolically, the prestige of Mughal ruler remained there. In 1857, last scion of this dynasty, Bahadur Shah Zafar was overthrown by British. In this way Mughal dynasty came to an end in India.

(i) The chronicles projected a vision of an enlightened Mughal kingdom. They intended to impress those rulers who accepted the cover of the Mughal umbrella.

(ii) They conveyed the message that the Mughal Empire was very powerful and those who resisted the rule of the Mughals were destined to fall.

The authors of the Mughal chronicles were the court historians. All the chronicles emphasised the following points:

(i)    Events associated with the ruler.

(ii)    Family of the ruler

(iii)    The royal court

(iv)    Wars and administrative provisions.

Titles of chronicles based on the rule of Akbar, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb are Akbarnama, Shahjahanama and Alamgirnama. These chronicles suggest that in the eyes of their authors, the history of empire and the court was synonymous with that of history of emperor.

Persian was made the leading language of the Mughal court by Akbar. He was inspired and motivated to do so because of his cultural and intellectual contacts with Iran. He was also aware of the fact that many migrants from Iran and Central Asia were eager to seek positions at the Mughal court. Thus Akbar elevated Persian to a language of his empire. He himself spoke it. The members of the royal household and the elites at court also spoke it.

Local idioms were absorbed in Persian with which Indianisation of Persian took place. Urdu language was developed with the interaction of Persian with Hindavi.

The Ramayana and the Mahabharatai.

According to Abul Fazl, sovereignty was a social contract. So the emperor protected the following essences of his subjects:

(i)    Life (Jan)

(ii) Property (mal)

(iii) Honour (namus)

(iv) Faith (din)

In return of this protection, the emperor demanded obedience and a share of resources.

The favourite symbol to represent the idea of justice of Mughal monarchy was the motif of the lion and the lamb (or cow) peacefully nestling next to each other. It was meant to signify that both the weak and the strong could exist in harmony.

Social control in court was exercised by forms of address, courtesies and speech which were acceptable in court. The small mistake of etiquette was noticed and was punished right on the spot.

(i) Sijda or complete prostration

(ii)    Chahar taslim

(iii)    Zaminbos i.e. kissing the ground.

Jharoka darshan was introduced by Akbar. According to this, emperor appeared on a small balcony, facing the east, giving a view to crowd of people standing below. Its objective was to broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority as part of popular faith.

(i)     Anniversary of accession to the throne.

(ii)     Id

(iii)    Shab-i barat

(iv)    Holi

Gifts given by the ruler:

(i)    Robe of honour, khilat.

(ii)    Sarapa consisted of a tonic, a turban and a sash, jewelled ornaments.

Gifts given by courtiers : A small sum of money (nazr) or a large amount (peshkash).

Jahanara was the daughter of Shah Jahan and sister of Roshanara. She devised many architectural projects in the new capital of Shah Jahan. She designed an imposing double-storeyed caravan-serai having a garden and a courtyard. She also designed the bazaar of Chandni Chowk in Shahjahanabad (now Delhi).

Mughal Empire under Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605):Many people consider Jalaluddin Akbar the greatest of an the Mughal emperors, for he not only expanded but also consolidated his empire, making it the largest, strongest and richest kingdom of his time. Akbar succeeded in extending the frontiers of the empire to the Hindukush mountains, and checked the expansionist designs of the Uzbeks of Turan (Central Asia) and the safavids of Iran.

During of reign the Akbar the basic institution of an imperial structure, governmental administration of centre, provincial and local levels were created and that was almost followed by next two successors of Akbar.

He laid down the religiouns and Rajput policy of secular nature and of harmonious. These policies were not followed by Akbar but almost by Jahangir and Shahjahan also. The Akbar's reforms included effective methods of administration and taxation. The visible centre of Mughal power was the court. Here political alliances and relationships were forged, status and hierarchies defined. The political system devised by the Akbar was based on a combination of military power and conscious policy to accommodate the different traditions they encouraged in the subcontinent.

The interpretations of Sharia (total collection of Islamic law) changed with time. Virtually all these religious traditions continue to flourish to date. This continuity has certain advantages for historians as it allow them to compare contemporay practices with those described in textual traditions or shown in old paintings and to trace change. At the same time, because these traditions are part of people's lived beliefs and practices, there is often lack of acceptance of the possibility that these may have changed over time. The challenge for historians is to under take such invetigations with sensitivity, while at the same time recognising that religious traditions, like other traditions, are dynamic and change over time.

The Akbarnama was written by Abul Fazl.

The content of Akbarnama in brief:

(i) The author of the Akbarnama, Abul Fazl grew up in the Mughal capital of Agra. He was widely read in Arabic, Persian, Greek philosophy and Sufism. Moreover he was a forceful debater and independent thinker who consistently opposed the views of the conservative ulema. These qualities impressed Akbar, who found Abul Fazl ideally suited as an adviser and a spokesperson for his policies.

(ii)    Beginning in 1589, Abul Fazl worked on the Akbarnama for thirteen years, repeatedly revising the draft. The chronicle is based on a range of sources, including actual records of events (waqai), official documents and oral testimonies of knowledgeable persons.

(iii)    The Akbarnama is divided into three books of which the first two are chronicles. The third book is the Ain-i-Akbari. The first volume contains the history of mankind from Adam to one celestial cycle of Akbar’s life (30 years).

(i) Name of author : The Name of author of Badshah Nama is Abdul Hamid Lahori.

(ii) Content of Badshah Nama:Abdul Hamid Lahori was a pupil of Abul Fazl Emperor Shah Jahan, heating of his talents, commissioned him to write a history of his reign modelled on the Akbnarnama. The Badshah Nama is the official history in three volumes (daftars) often lunar years each. Lahori wrote the first and second daftars comprising the first two decades of the emperor’s rule (1627-47), these volumes were later revised by Sadullah Khan, Shah Jahan’s wazir . Infirmities of old age prevented Lahori from proceeding with the third decade which was then chronicled by the historian Waris.

I. The ideal of Sulh-i-kul : Akbar’s dream of Sulh-i-kul detracted the people’s devotion towards the empire. The other people started treating the Mughals not as foreigners but as their well-wishers. This religious and cultural conglomeration brought about peace and order lines in the country which strengthened the country and led her on the path of progress. The situation of tension vanished from the people’s hearts. Being fearless all the people were deeply engrossed in their own professional activities in an atmosphere of fraternity and goodwill.

II. Efforts of Akbar for Sulh-i-kul:

(i) There will be no exaggeration if we call Akbar’s reign as a non-sectarian, secular state. It was Akbar’s heartfelt aspiration that the people of all religions should come in contact with one another and a feeling f fraternity should get inculcate in them.

(ii)    He combined the gist of all religions into Din-e-Ilahi since he heard the logic of the religions viz,. Hinduism, Islam, and Parsi religions.

(iii)    He get the Sanskrit, Arabic and Greek texts translated into Persian. For this purpose he opened a separate department for translation work. He had got the Gita, Quran, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bible and other such religious texts also translated.

(iv)    It was Akbar’s keen desire that the people should go through one another’s religious texts and get their views discussed and exchanged.

(v)    He prescribed history, logic, agriculture, literature and the like subjects in the curriculum.

(vi)    He did not give undue importance to any religion.

The above facts were an endeavour to materialise his dream of “Sulh-i-kul” the policy of peace and harmony. This strengthened cultural unity.

The emperor at the balcony an in Diwan-i-am.

(i)    the emperor began his day at sunrise with personal religious devotions or prayers, and then appeared on a small balcony, the Jharoka, facing the east. Below, a crowd of people (soldiers; merchants, craftspersons, peasants, women with sick children) waited for a view, darshan, of the emperor. Jharoka darshan was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority as part of popular faith.

The variety of tasks involved in creation of manuscripts during the reign of the Mughals are as follows:

(a)    All books in Mughal India were manuscripts, that is, they were handwritten. The centre of manuscript production was the imperial kitabkhana. Although kitabkhana can be translated as library, it was a scriptorium,that is, a place where the emperor’s collection of manuscripts was kept and new manuscripts were produced.

(b)    The creation of a manuscript involved a number of people performing a variety of taskss. Paper makers were needed to prepare the folios of the manuscript, scribes or calligraphers to copy the text, gilders to illuminate the pages, painters to illustrate scenes from the text, bookbinders to gather the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.

(c)The finished manuscript was seen as a precious object, a work of intellectual wealth and beauty it exemplified the power of its patron, the Mughal emperor, to bring such beauty into being.

(d) At the same time some of the people involved in the actual production of the manuscript also got recognition in the form of titles and awards. Of these, calligraphers and painters held a high social standing while others, such as paper makers or bookbinders, have remained anonymous artisans.

The Mughal Nobility:

I. Composition:

(i)    The nobility was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious groups. This ensured that no faction was large enough to challenge the authority of the state. The officer corps of the Mughals was described as a bouquet of flowers (guldasta) held together by loyalty to the emperor. In Akbar’s imperial service, Turani and Iranian nobles were present from the earliest phase to carving out a political domination. Many had accompanied Humayun, others migrated later to the Mughal court.

(ii)    Two ruling groups of Indian origin entered the imperial service from 1560 onwards the Rajputs and the Indian Muslims (Shaikhzadas). The first to join was a Rajput chief, Raja Bharmal Kachhwaha of Amber, to whose daughter Akbar got married. Members of Hindu castes inclined towards education and accountancy were also promoted, a famous example being Akbar’s finance minister, Raja Todar Mal, who belonged to the Khatri caste.

II. Ways of Honour:

(i)    In order to prevent the great nobles becoming insolent through the unchallenged enjoyment of power, the King summons them to court and gives them imperious commands, as though they were his slaves. The obedience to these commands ill suits their exalted rank and dignity.

(ii)    Iranians gained high offices under Jahangir, whose politically influential queen, Nur Jahan (d. 1645), was an Iranian. Aurangzeb appointed Rajputs to high positions and under him the Marathas accounted for a sizeable number within the body of officers.

(iii)    All holders of government offices held ranks (mansabs) comprising two numercial designations : jaat which was an indicator or position in the imperial hierarchy and the salary of the official (mansabdar), and sawar which indicated the number of horsemen he was required to maintain in service. In the seventeenth century, mansabdars of 1,000 jaat or above ranked as nobles (umara, which is the plural of amir).

III. Functions and works of nobles : (i) The nobles participated in military campaign with their armies and also served as officers of the empire in the provinces. Each military commander recruited, equipped and trained the main striking arm of the Mughal army, the cavalry

(ii)    The troopers maintained superior horses branded on the flank by the imperial mark (dagh). The emperor personally reviewed changes in rank, titles and official postings for all except the lowest-ranked officers.

(iii)    Nobles stationed at the court (tainat-i rakab) were a reserve force to be deputed to a province or military campaign. They were dutybound to appear twice daily, morning and evening to express submission to the emperor in the public audience hall. They shared the responsibility for guarding the emperor and his household round the clock.

(i) Daily routine started with the Jharoka Darshan : The emperor began his day at sunrise with personal religious devotions or prayers, and then appeared on a small balcony, the jharoka, facing the east. Below, a crowd of people (soldiers, merchants, craftspersons, peasants, women with sick children) waited for a view, darshan, of the emperor. Jharoka darshan was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority as part of popular faith.

(ii)    Emperor in Diwan-i-am : After spending an hour at the jharoka, the emperor walked to the public hall of audience (diwan-i-am) to conduct the primary business of his government. State officials presented reports and made requests. Two hours later, the emperor was in the diwan-i khas to hold private audiences and discuss confidential matters. High ministers of state place their petitions before him and tax officials presented their accounts. Occasionally, the emperor viewed the works of highly reputed artists or building plans of architects (minar).

(iii)    On Birthday : Before the first birthday of Akbar his father Humayun was detroved by Sher Shah Suri. He got happy when he knew of the birth of new male-baby Akbar. He distributed deer’s kasturi among his nears and deers and declared as the fragrance of it spreading all-around similarly the fragrance of good deeds and billion achievements will spread throughout the Hindustan and even in the world. Later on his birthday, the monarch was weighed against various commodities, and even with coins. All these things were distributed in charity.

 I. Akbar : Many people considered Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) the greatest of all the Mughal emperors, for he not only expanded but also consolidated his empire, making it the largest, strongest and richest kingdom of his time.

II. Territorial Conquests of Akbar:

1.    Victory over Delhi and Agra : Akbar defeated Hemu, the minister of Adil Shah in the Battle of Panipat in 1556 A. D. On recapturing Delhi and Agra, the foundation stone of the Mughal Empire was laid again since the same had been dug out.

2.    Victories over Gwalior, Jaunpur and Ajmer : Akbar merged Gwalior, Jaunpur and Ajmer in his empire during 1556-60 A. D.

3.    Victory over Malwa : Akbar defeated Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa in 1562 A. D. Akbar got puffed up when he accepted his suzerainty.

4.    Victory over Gondwana : Quern Durgawati was ruling over Gondwana as patron of her minor son. A steady battle took place between the Rajput soldiers and the Mughals. Both the queen and her son got killed in the battle. Hence Gondwana fell in the hands of the Mughals.

5.    Victory over Chittor : Udai Singh, the arrogant ruler of Mewar did not accept his suzerainty. Hence, Akbar himself led the army and conquered Chittor, the capital of Mewar.

6.    Victory over Ranthambhor and Kalinjar : Akbar captured the fort of Ranthambhor in 1569 A. D. Kalinjar’s ruler too accepted Akbar’s suzerainty. Besides, many other states like Jodhpur, Bikaner, etc. were accepting his vassalage.

7.    Victory over Gujarat : Akbar defeated Muzaffar Shah, the ruler of Gujarat in 1572 A. D. Fatehpur Sikri was baptised by Akbar in honour of the said victory.

HI. Good qualities of Akbar as a true nationalist or a good administrator.

(i) Akbar could ove himself the most secular ruler. In the beginning he had a strong faith in Islam and in the divine existence. He did not even hesitate to pick up the shoes of the chief of Islamic religion, Qazi Abdul Nabi Khan. Gradually, Akbar got diverted from his traditional views. He stopped following the guidance of rigid Sunnis. He gave evidences of his tolerant religious policy after 1562. He abolished the pilgrimage tax levied on the Hindus, and the very next year he abolished the jazia as well. He gave high posts to the Hindus and placed resolution on forcible conversion of the war prisoners. Akbar’s attitude towards his Hindus subjects remained very liberal from 1582 to 1605, the last years of his rule.

(ii)    Akbar tried to emphasize the concept of sulahkul or peace and harmony among religions in different ways. He revised educational syllabus and laid more emphasis on secular subjects.

(iii)    In the field of arts and literature, fairs and festivals, Akbar did his best to integrate different Indian and Central Asia’s or Mughal traits up to a great extent. He patronize the artists of different faiths and regions of the subcontinent.

1. Akbar was a staunch fanatic Mohammedan in the beginning but when he came in contact with some genial souls his fanaticism diminished. His patron Bairam Khan-Rahim Khankhana, Faizi and Abul Fazl were among them. His Hindus queens too had influenced him. Hence, a liberal attitude started developing in him.

2.    He gave proper place to other religions also. He strove to remove their evil practices. He got the Ibadatkhana constructed at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 AD wherein the adherents of different religions had the privilege to express their respective religious views.

3.    While discussing the religious affairs the Maulvis resorted to abusive language. Hence, he developed a distance from Islam. He applied a Tilak mark on his forehead and worshipped the cows. Hence the fanatics called him as infidel ‘a kafir’. He got the khutba read in his name in 1579 A. D. and declared himself as the chief of religion.

4.    Hence the ulemas who were hitherto the authorities on religion had lesser influence. The above mentioned circumstances naturally resulted in the reaction of Din-e-Ilahi.

5.    Akbar heard the preaching speeches of the learned people of various religions but none could impress him. He deemed all the religions as incomplete hence he compounded the gist of all religions into a new religion labelled as Din-e-Ilahi in 1582 A.D. Din-e-Ilahi was based on the main principles or teachings of various religions of the world.

The granting of titles to man of merit was an important aspect of Mughal polity. A man’s ascent in the court hierarchy could be traced through the titles he held. The title Asaf Khan for one of the highest ministers originated with Asaf, the legendary minister of the prophet king Sulaiman (Solomon). The title Mirza Raza was accorded by Aurangzeb to his two highest ranking nobles, Jai Singh and Jaswant Singh. Titles could be earned or paid for Mir Khan offered Rs. one lakh to Aurangzeb for the letter alif, that is A, to be added to his name to make it Amir Khan. Other awards included the robe of honour (khilat), a garment once worn by the emperor and imbued with his benediction.

(i) The main objective of Mughals’ relations with the Ottoman empire was to maintain a free movement for pilgrims and merchants in the territories under control of Ottoman empire. This was true especially for the Hijaz i.e. that area of Ottoman Arabia where Mecca and Madina, important pilgrim centres were located.

(ii) Mughal emperors generally combined commerce and religion They used to export valuable things to Aden and Mokha, both the ports of Red Sea. They even used to distribute the income from the sale of these goods in charity and keepers of shrines. But when Aurangzeb came to know about the misappropriation of funds sent to Arabia then he stressed on their distribution in India because he believed that, “it was as much a house of God as Mecca.”

Thsese are main effects of religious policy of Akbar as under:

(i) Vast Mughal Empire : Akbar won the hearts of Rajputs only because of his Hindu policy. He was able to suppress his enemies with the cooperation of Rajputs. Many loyal Rajput chiefs won many battles for the kingdom. It led to great expansion of Mughal empire.

(ii) Strong Mughal Empire : Before Akbar, Hindus were enemies of empire and were causing huge losses to the state. But liberal policy of Akbar brought Hindus to Mughal court. As a-result, Mughal empire became very strong.

(iii)  Encouragement to sense of nation building : As a result of this policy of Akbar, lakhs of Hindus came in favour of Mughal empire and began working for the progress of empire. That’s why Akbar was able to succeed in his objective of nation building.

(iv)  Progress in Art and Literature : As a result of this policy, art and literature made a huge progress. Mughal art was mixed into Hindu art and mixture of Sanskrit and Persian gave birth to new type of literature and language.

(i) Akbar was a first Muslim ruler who gave preference to national interests instead of developing any religion or sect. He conquered whole of north India and tied it in one thread.

He implemented same legal and administrative system in all of his provinces. First time in medieval period, Hindu masses were given same religious freedom like Muslims.

(ii)    He even removed the religious tax imposed on Hindus called Jizya. Mughal emperor Akbar not only married to Rajput princesses but he also permitted them to worship their deities according to Hindu traditions.

(iii)    Din-i-Ilahi was a symbol of religious tolerance of Akbar. He began this religion to establish unity among Hindus and Muslims.

Just because of these measures, Akbar was succeeded in founding a national empire in the country.

(a) Many of the Rajput clans trace their genealogy to the solar and lunar families of Kshatriyas which are mentioned in the Mahabharata.

(b)    Some other trace their ancestry back to a sacrificial fire said to have been held at Mt. Abu by the sage Vaistha.

(c)    We cannot depend upon these traditions because some of them; such as the legend of the sacrificial fire at Mt. Abu from which some of the Rajput clans, such as the Pratihara, Parmara, Chauhan and Solanki, is mentioned for the first time in the later vedic traditions.

(d)    We can deduce from traditions only that different Rajput clans have different origins. Some scholars, both foreign and Indian think that a number of these clans descended from Scythians and Hunas who settled in India after Harsha, while a number of others belonged to indigenous tribes.

(a) The nobility along with the landed gentry, the zamindars, etc formed what may be called the ruling class in medieval India. Socially and economically, the Mughal nobility formed a privileged class.

(b) Theoretically, the doors of the Mughal nobility were open to every one. In practice persons belonging to aristocratic families, whether they were Indians or foreigners had a decided advantages.

(c)    To begin with the bulk of the Mughal nobles were drawn from the homeland of the Mughals, Turan and from its neighbouring areas, Tajikistan, Khorasan, Iran, etc.

(d)    During the days of Akbar, Rajputs were also included at a large number in the ruling class.

Lower class or common men:

Peasants, workers, urban artisans, servants, lower servants, small traders and shopkeepers comprised this category. Contemporary Persian authors have not elaborated on life status or social position of this category.

Economic condition of common man was not sound. The condition of workers was more deplorable. They were paid low wages and also subjected to forced labour. According to Moreland, “In several parts of the country, full-sized garments were not worn. Their diet was also very simple. They also consumed rice, pulse, khichri, fish, chapatis etc. The position of petty shopkeepers was a bit better than that off peasants and workers. But they also feared from government servants.”

Qandhar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals due to following reasons:

1.    Iran and Turan : The political and diplomatic relations between the Mughal kings and the neighbouring countries of Iran and Turan hinged on the control of the frontier defined by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan from the regions of Iran and Central Asia.

2.    To control strategic out-posts (such as Kabul and Qandhar) : All conquerors who sought to make their way into the Indian subcontinent had to cross the Hindukush to have access to north India. A constant aim of Mughal policy was to ward off this potential danger by controlling strategic outposts - notably Kabul and Qandhar.

3.    Qandhar as a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals : Qandhar, a fortress town had initially been in the possession of Humayun, conquered in 1595 by Akbar. While the Safavid court retained diplomatic relations with the Mughals, it continued to stake claims to Qandhar. In 1613 Jahangir sent a diplomatic envoy to the court of Shah Abbas to plead the Mughal case for retaining Qandhar, but the mission failed. In the winter of 1622 a Persian army besieged Qandhar. The ill-prepared Mughal garrison was defeated and had to surrender the fortress and the city to the Safavids.

Babar’s reminiscences have been recorded in his autobiography ‘Tuzuk-i-Babari’ or ‘Babamama’. Babar had written this book in his native Turkish language. This is a big source of the contemporary history. It has been translated in many languages of the world as Persian, Hindi, English and French. It reflects the conduct, mode of eating and the way of living of the countrymen.

(i) Negative points of the country (As Babur has mentioned) : Babur jotted down in his reminiscences about India as follows :

India is a country of inferior beauty. Her natives are not beautiful. There is neither proximity nor social intimacy among her natives. There is no etiquette. There is no order, system or delicacy in manual work. There is no hot-water baths, universities, candles or lamp-posts. Water is found nowhere else excepting big rivers and revulets whose water too flows into valleys and pits. Farmers and other categories of people live almost nude. Male common people wear langotta that covers the parts below the navel with a narrow loin-cloth. The upper parts remain naked.

(ii) Positive points (As have been described) : The plus point of India is that it is a large country. Heaps of gold and silver exist here. Here winds are very pleasants during rains. There is one more speciality in India that people in large number know various types of arts and crafts. There are professional castes who practise the same work from generation to generation.

Conclusion : Having observed the then prevailing conditions of India while busy in warfare during the short span (1526-1530) of his life Babur made a vivid description of the same. It is deemed as an authentic and significant manuscript of the contemporary history. This book reflects the climatic conditions of the country, arts and crafts, the peoples, way of living, conduct and industries.

Sher Shah Suri took the following steps to promote trade and commerce in his empire:

1.    Peace, law and order : Trade and commerce can thrive in a country only if there is peaceful environment. Hence, Sher Shah Suri inflicted severe punishment on unsocial elements and men comprising sinful propensities. He kept a strict watch over the Jagirdars lest they should rise in revolt against him in their own regions falling in unison with unsocial elements. So the businessmen indulged in their trade fearlessly.

2.    Construction of big roads : In order to connect one part of his empire with the others, he got a network of roads constructed. These roads connected Sonargaon with Attok; Agra with Chittor, Agra with Deccan and Agra with Multan.

3.    Protection on roads : Sher Shah Suri appointed detectives all through his empire. He was the first ruler who established the police department. The unsocial elements and robbers were strictly dealt with. On account of this fear, the offence were reduced to the minimum.

4.    Incentive to trade : To give incentive to trade he got good roads constructed. The Grand Trunk Road serve as the royal path even this day. He got the trees planted on both sides of the roads and got the wells sunk for drinking water. He got the travellers inns constructed on road sides on several places for the convenience of businessmen where he could safely spend the night. There was separate inns for Hindus and Muslims.

5.    New land system : He introduced the ‘Ryotwari’ system eliminated the mediating landlords. The farmers now had direct link with the government. He got the entire land measured through Todarmal and made three divisions of entire land. These were the lands of first, second and third grade. Revenue was levied on the basis of yield. One-third of the total produce was given to the state as land revenue. The farmers were free to make the payment of the land revenue in cash or kind.

On viewing the political, military, religious and land reforms of Sher Shah Suri the historians are of this view that Akbar too had founded his Mughal empire on the basis of these reforms. But to call Akbar as only the blind followers of Sher Shah Suri will be a sort of humiliation of a great ruler like Akbar. Akbar gave his original contribution too to many reforms done by Sher Shah Suri.

Akbar adopted the following policies of Sher Shah Suri :

1.    Policy of stretching empire : Akbar too stretched (expanded) the boundaries of his empire like Sher Shah Suri. Akbar conquered Kabul, Kandhar and Kashmir, situated in far north. Besides, Akbar did not leave the southern India untouched. But there is no exaggeration in saying ‘Had the life-span of Sher Shah Suri been longer, he would not have lagged behind Akbar in that region too’. Even then Akbar is deemed as Sher Shah’s follower in this sphere.

2.    Division of labour for covenience : Keeping in view, the general welfare of the people Sher Shah Suri divided his empire into 47 sarkars for division of work. This expedited the work of administration. The general problems were redressed. Akbar accelerated his administrative work by dividing his vast empire into provinces.

3.    Emperor as symbol of supreme power : Sher Shah Suri did not give any jolt to the idea of the ruler being the supreme power. He had given secretarial powers to his ministers. So the ruler himself was the source of power. Akbar too tried to give high regard to the counsels of his nine gems (Nava Ratans). But he never let the prestige/honour of the rulers have setback.

4.    Military system : Sher Shah Suri had himself assumed the responsibility of getting the horses branded, getting the descriptive rolls of the soldiers recorded and their recruitment and inspection of the troop from time to time. Akbar maintained this system too the latter on. But he had introduced the ‘Mansabdari System’. There was no such system in Sher Shah’s times.

5.    Provision of Justice : Both Sher Shah Suri and Akbar loved justice. They never let any feeling of injustice for Hindu or Muslim enter their minds. Their target was ‘justice is for the sake of justice alone and not for any religion or community’. Judicial system of both was alike wherein the ruler alone was the supreme authority. The chief Qazi, high officials of sarkars and provinces and the village pan. ayats had the authority of administering justice.

6. Land reforms : Sher Shah Suri divided the land and the land revenue according to the produce of the land. He introduced the system of getting the land measured by iron rods. Todarmal assisted both Sher Shah Suri and Akbar in land revenue system and reforms. Land revenue was charged from the farmers both in cash and kind. Akbar introduced the land system termed as ‘Das-Sala’ in 1580.

Early difficulties of Akbar : Akbar was enthroned at the unripe age of thirteen years. Then the political, economic and administrative plight of the country was in a dwindling state because his father Humayun kept wandering here and there. He could not sit on the throne at ease. Delhi and Agra had been striken by famine. The people started starving. The rebellious powers were raising their heads all around.

In order to scatter the dark clouds of danger surrounding Akbar, he took many steps which are as under :

(i) Second Battle of Panipat (1556) : When Humayun died, Akbar was in Punjab, Hemu, the minister of Adil Shah, the ruler of Suri dynasty availed himself of the opportunity and captured Delhi and Agra. To face this intricate problem, Akbar with his forces headed towards Delhi being accompanied by Bairam Khan. Hemu, with his vast army too proceeded to restrain the heading Mughal army. Both the forces came face to face in the battlefield of Panipat on 15th November, 1556. The Mughals lost their hold before the skilled commandership of Hemu. Just then the battle took a serious turn. A soughing arrow appeared from somewhere and pierced into Hemu’s eye. Being unconscious Hemu fell upon the ground. Failure to see him caused a stampede in his army. Making the best use of opportunity, the Mughals regained courage and they pounced on Hemu’s army. Hemu’s soldiers were hacked to pieces like vegetables. Hemu too was caught and slaughtered. On recapting Delhi and Agra, Akbar founded the Mughal empire once more.

(ii)    Restraint over the Mewat Revolt :

Hemu had many relatives in Mewar. They too had rebelled. Akbar trampled them cruelly. He confiscated their wealth and strengthened his financial position.

(iii)    Vanquishing Sikandar Suri : Sikandar Suri led down his arms before Akbar. Akbar forgave him and appointed him as the landlord of Bihar.

(iv)    Suppression of Abdul Mali : Akbar defeated even a strong sardar like Adbul Mali who had challenged Akbar’s authority at the very outset.

(v)    End of Ibrahim Suri and Adil Shah : The Sultan of Bengal killed Adil Shah. Ibrahim Suri getting scared on the sight of Akbar’s proceeding forces and fled towards Orissa.

I. Features of the Rajput Policy :

When Akbar noticed that the Rajputs were brave, devoted, loyal and self-sacrificing to protect their honour and besides their qualities they possessed the feelings of friendship, he got devotee or praiser of their virtues. He seated them on key posts, established wedding relations with them, and never strove to hurt their religious feelings. The following are the chief traits of Akbar’s religious policies :

(i) Uniform treatement : Akbar was the first Muslim ruler who understood the Rajput’s feelings. He could assess that the Rajputs would not hesitate in laying down their lives to save their honour. So he gave them proper positions at first through his feelings of co-existence. They too were at liberty to adhere to their religious performances and religious policies.

(ii)    Wedding relation with the Rajputs :

Akbar established matrimonial alliances with the Rajputs. He married the princesses of Bikaner, Marwar and Jaisalmer. They were at liberty to follow their religions. The dais for planting of Tulsi can still be seen in Jodhabai’s palace. He had never hurt the feelings of the Rajputs while making treaties with them. Key posts were given to the relatives of the queens.

(iii)    Positions according to qualifications : While evaluating eligibility Akbar never had a prejudice for the Muslims or against the Hindus. He assigned key posts to Raja Bharmal, Bhagwan Dass, Man Singh and Birbal, etc. in commensuration with their abilities and qualities. His reliable soldiers and commanders were the Hindus. The top mansab of 7,000 was given to Raja Man Singh.

(iv)    Use of force : When some Rajput rulers kicked Akbar’s proposal of friendship he took resort to using force and defeated the Rajput rulers but never hit their feelings. When the rulers of Amber, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer accepted his suzerainty they were given due honour.

Maharana Pratap and Udai Singh of Mewar never bowed their heads before Akbar. They kept wandering in the forests life long and opposed the Akbar.

(v) Tolerance towards the Hindus : The Hindus were at liberty to celebrate their festivals. They could got new temples constructed and the old ones repaired. He got the pilgrim tax and the Jizya exempted which levied on the Hindus. This impressed the Rajputs too.

II. Results of Akbar’s Rajput policy.

(i)    Rajputs were loyal to Mughals : Akbar having been pleased with Rajputs loyalty, gave them key posts in the military. This strengthened the roots of Mughal Empire on the one hand and extracted the feelings of hatred and animously from the hearts of the Rajputs against foreign rules in due course of time on the other hand since they had acquired due honour.

(ii)    Helpful in the expansion of Mughal Empire : Akbar captured Kabul, Qandhar and the remote southern regions of India with the

Rajput’s help. Now the army was so powerful as to meet any foreign challenge.

(iii)    Round of wars in Rajasthan ended : Now the possibility of confrontation between the Mughals and the Rajputs was hushed up. There was peace and orderliness all over which made the people’s life secure and they engaged themselves in developing trade and efficiency in practising many arts.

(iv)    Pacification of Rajput’s ego : The Rajputs were fighting and sacrificing their lives only for the sake of pseudo prestige. The breach between them had widened but Akbar’s Rajput policy bridged the gulf and the Rajputs could seek prestige, wealth and position. Man Singh got Mansab of 7,000. Many high military and civil posts were given to Rajputs. Thus the ego of the Rajputs was pacified.

(v)    Admixture of literature and art : A healthy admixture of the art and literature and architecture reflected itself due to the amity between the Mughals and the Rajputs. The Panch Mahal at Fatehpur Sikri is a fine model of the same.

Background of Din-i-Ilahi : Akbar heard the preaching and speeches of the learned people of various religions but none could impress him. He deemed all the religions as incomplete hence he compounded the gist of all religions into a new religion labelled as Din-e-Ilahi. The following are the chief characteristics of this religion:

(i)    Had Akbar so desired, he would have declared his religion as the state religion. But he never thrust the same upon any one forcibly.

(ii)    God is one and Akbar is the representative of the prophet.

(iii)    While paying salutations, the chief mode in his religion was to utter ‘Allah-hu-Akbar’, and got the reply “Jall-i-Jalalahu”.

(iv)    The adherent of this religion touched the emperor’s feet with his head every Sunday. It was customary that the emperor raised him and gave him hymn which he uttered repeatedly.

(v) The followers of this religion deemed the fire as sacred and worshipped the Sun god.

(vi)    The devotees of this religion were staunch vegetarians.

(vii)    The followers of this religion arranged a feast and made bounties to celebrate his birth days.

(viii)    These people looked up on all religions with a sense of respect.

(ix)    Every member took the vow of character building and to cause the welfare to others.

(x) These people did not led the child marriage or old folks marriage did take place.

(xi) These persons performed their obituaries during their life time.

1. Buildings got constructed by Babar : Babar had spent a major part of his period as emperor in wars. Still he got the buildings constructed during whatever little time was left with him e.g., the splendid mosque located at Kabuli Garden in Panipat and Sambhal in Ruhelkhand etc. He got the mosque constructed in old Lodi Fort at Agra along with the Jama Masjid. Their very sight-reveals the knowledge of the then art of building constftretion. pesides this Babar had described in his autobiography ‘Babarnama’ about the interest in the work of construction at Sikri, Dhaulpur, Bayana, Gwalior, etc.

2.    Buildings got constructed by Humayun : Humayun kept rolling during his life-time hence he did not get the proper and required time for building construction yet he got the mosques constructed at Agra and at Fatehabad in Hissar. The style of these mosque construction is Greek.

3.    Buildings got construted by Akbar : There was peace, order and wealth during Akbar’s reign. Hence, this increased his courage and devotion to building construction. A mixed form of Greek and Indian style can be detected in his building construction. He got the Humayun’s tomb constructed in Delhi and got some buildings constructed at Lahore. He got the Agra fort comprising nearly five hundred buildings constructed out of which Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Jahangir Mahal, Akbari Mahal etc, can be pin-pointed as the chief buildings. He got a new town (city) constructed at Fatehpur Sikri. Among the constructed buildings, the chief ones were—Buland Darwaja, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Jama Masjid, tomb of Sheikh^-Salim Chisti, Panch Mahal, Jodha Bai’s Palace, Birbal Palace etc. A combined form of Hindu-Muslim style can be noticed herein. Leaving aside the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti, all the other buildings are made of red stone.

4.    Buildings got constructed by Jahangir : Jahangir was chiefly fond of planting gardens and drawing. Association of a garden with every Mughal building was his speciality. Noor Jahan got her father's tomb constructed at Agra which is addressed to this day as Aitmadudaula. Marble has been chiefly used therein. The walls are covered with designs and paintings of flowers, leaves, creepers etc. on valuable and multi-coloured stones. Jahangir got Akbar’s tomb named Sikandara constructed near Agra.

5.    Buildings got constructed by Shah Jahan : The buildings got constructed by Shah Jahan are fine models of masonry. Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Sawan Bhadon, Moti Masjid etc. constructed inside the Red Fort at Delhi are unique models of masonry. The work of mosaic is peeping out of the walls of the buildings. Jama Masjid too is a fine model of art. The Taj Mahal at Agra has also been made of white marble which Shah Jahan had got constructed in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. The ceilings and walls had been engraved with costly stories and precious metals like gold and silver which were delineated with natural scenes.

6.    Aurangzeb and the fall of the art of architecture : He got only the Shahi Masjid constructed at Lahore. His period was the period of decline in masonry. Neither did he take any interest in this direction nor encouraged it. He deemed it as extravagence.

Painting sought whole-hearted encouragement during the Mughal period. Both Babar and Humayun were art-loving. Two artists had accompanied Humayun from Iran. But Humayun expired before his art flourished.

1.    Painting during Akbar’s period : Painting during Akbar’s period got an Indian touch hence the effect of foreign touch gradually disappeared. The chief painters in Akbar’s court were : Sanwal Dass, Jagannath, Tarachand, etc. Akbar opened separate department for the progress of painting with Abdul Samad as its head. The Mughal style began reflecting itself during this period which was an admixture of Indian and Iranian art.

2.    Painting during Jahangir’s Period : Jahangir was so well conversant in art and paintings that he could name the painter on seeing the painting. His chief painters were -Aga Raza, Abdul Hussain, Mohammad Nadir and Mohammad Murad. Jahangir spent lavishly for the progress of painting. The Indian reflection replaced the Iranian reflection now.

3.    Painting during Shah Jahan’s period : Shah Jahan had a special taste for architecture. But it cannot be said with certainty that Shah Jahan’s period remained untouched in the field of painting. The chief painters of this time were : Mir Hassan, Anoop, Chinamani, Chitra etc. Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan had a special taste for painting. His favourite painters were: Faqui Ullah, Mir Kasim, etc.

4.    Painting in Aurangzeb’s Period : Aurangzeb was a staunch Mohammedan. He used to say, “To encourage painting is against the dictates of Quran”. He discharged his court painters. He got the paintings made on the walls of Fatehpur Sikri errected. The jobless painters sought shelter in neighbouring states like Avadh, Mysore, Hyderabad etc.

Chief characteristics of Paintings of Mughal period :

(i)    Paintings of the Mughal period were beyond the lives of the laymen. That was deemed as only the thing of the court. Hence the royal families, natural scenes, wars, animal fights, hunting, royal processions, etc. were painted in the paintings of this period.

(ii)    There was no painting related to religious matters in Mughal paintings whereas there was an overflow of paintings on earthly and natural beauty.

(iii)    Special emphasis was laid on natural scenes in the paintings of the Mughal period. The natural and scenic beauty was portrayed in the background of every painting.

(iv)    Special emphasis was laid on the individual paintings of the Mughal rulers since the painters not only gained financially but also came in the good books of the ruling class. On gaining their pleasure, the painters got a place in the royal court.

There is no exaggerating the fact that the Mughal period was the classical and golden period of Indian history. The Gupta period was the first golden period. There are many factors behind it. The empire had been widely stretched and there was perfect peace and order. The political unity too had stepped into the country. Hence, the economic structure of the country had improved. A unique progress took place in the fields of literature, painting, architecture, music and trade. The following facts will justify why the Mughal period is called the golden period of Indian history:

1.    Political uniformity : The Mughal rulers brought uniformity in administration, coins, appointment of officials, law and regulations in the vast areas conquered by them as in his entire empire and established political unity. Formerly the country was divided into small units which were governed by different rulers, different laws and regulations and different methodology of administration.

2.    Beneficial administration : The Mughal administration was humanitarian which was better than that of the Sultans of Delhi. Hence the Marathas, Rajputs and Britishers adopted this administrative policy and stabilised their empire.

3.    Incentive to national feelings : Akbar had recognised the feelings of the Indians. Hence, he never got in the quagmire of religious fanaticism nor did he ever instruct his successors to stick to religious narrowness. All the religious festivals were celebrated in Mughal period. No restriction was imposed upon any one. The people of all religions were appointed to various posts. Aurangzeb was the sole ruler in the Mughal period who had religious narrow mindedness. Hence, he caused his own downfall among with that of his empire by striking at the roots of national feelings. Hence the growth of nationality was at its climax during that period.

4.    Peace and Order : Though the Mughal Empire was very vast but there was never lack of peace and order during the period. The internal riots were quelled once for all. The boundaries were well defended. The lives of the people were free from worries hence an immeasurable development took place in trade and delicacies of art.

5.    Growth of Literature : The granthas which were composed during the period were —Tuzuk-i-Babri or Babarnama, Ain-i-Akbari, Humayunama, Shahnama, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, etc. All the above books were composed in Persian. The prominent writers / poets of the Hindi were Malik Mohammad Jayasi, Abdur-Rahim Khankhana, Raskhan, Surdas, Tulsidas, Keshavdas, Bhushan, Bihari, etc. The Urdu literature too flourished during this period.

6. Painting : There was an admixture of Indian and Iranian painting in the Mughal period. Aga Raza, Ustad Mansoor, Kishan Dass etc. were famous painters in Jahangir’s period. Unique efficiency in the art was reflected by natural and scenic delication, hunting and painting pertaining to royal families.

7. Music : The religious fanatic Aurangzeb repudiated the musicians. The other Mughal rulers were music loving. ‘Khayal’, ‘Thumri’, Gajal’, etc. were prevalent in this age. The famous musicians of the time were - Tansen, Baj Bahadur, Bachu, Jagannath, Janardan Bhatt, etc.

(i) The main activities taking place in the Darbar of Akbar were as under : Whenever His Majesty (Akbar) holds court (darbar), a large drum is beaten, the sounds of which are accompanied by Divine praise. In this manner, people of all classes receive notice. His Majesty’s sons and grandchildren, other men who have admittance, attend to make the komish and remain standing in their proper places. Learned mon of renown and skilful mechanics pay their respects. His Majesty, with his usual insights, gives orders and settles everything in a satisfactory manner.

(ii)    The different forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the person’s status in the hierarchy: deeper prostration represented higher status. The highest from of submission was sijda or complete prostration.

(iii)    (a) The emperor began his day at sunrise with personal religious devotions or prayers, and then appeared on a small balcony, the jharoka, facing the east. Below, a crowd of people (soldiers, merchants, craftspersons, peasants, women with sick children) waited for a view, darshan, of the emperor.

(b) After spending an hour at the jharoka, the emperor walked to the public hall of audience (diwan-i-am) to conduct the primary business of his government. State officials presented reports and made requests. wo hours later, the emperor was in the diwan-i-khas to hold private audiences and discuss confidential matters. Occasionally, the emperor viewed the works of highly reputed artists or building plans of architects (minar).

The distictive features of the imperial household of the Mughal Empire are:

(i)The Mughal household consisted of the emperor’s wives and concubines , his near and distant relatives and female servants and slaves.

(ii)Polygamy was practiced widely.

(iii)Distinction was maintained between begams and aghas. The concubines occupied the lowest position in the hierarchy of females intimately related to royalty.

Panchayats in the Mughal society:

 (i) The village panchayat was an assembly of elders, usually important people of the village with hereditary rights over their property.

 (ii) In mixed-caste villages, the panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body.

 (iii) The decisions made by these panchayats were binding on the members. 

(iv) The panchayat derived its funds from contributions made by individuals to a common financial pool.

 (v) Often these funds were also deployed in construction of a bund or digging a canal which Peasants usually could not afford to do on their own.

 (vi) One important function of the panchayat was to ensure that caste boundaries among the various communities inhabiting the village were upheld.

 (vii) Panchayats also had the authority to levy fines and inflict more serious forms of punishment like expulsions from the community.

 (viii) The jati panchayats wielded considerable power in rural society and arbitrated civil disputes between members of different castes.

 (ix) Village panchayat was regarded as the court of appeal that would ensure that the state carried out its moral obligations and guaranteed justice.

 (x) The decision of the panchayat in conflicts between “lower-caste” peasants and state officials or the local zamindar could vary from case to case.

OR

Akbar maintained harmonious relations with different ethnic and religious communities:

(i) As the source of all peace and stability the emperor stood above, all religious and ethnic groups, mediated among them, and ensured that justice and peace prevailed.

 (ii) The ideal of sulh-i kul was described as the cornerstone of enlightened rule.

 (iii) In sulh-i-Kul all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression but on condition that they did not undermine the authority of the state or flight among themselves.

 (iv) The ideal of sulh-i kul was implemented through state policies-the nobility under the Mughals was a composite one comprising Iranis, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs, Deccanis -all of whom were given positions and awards purely on the basis of their service and loyalty to the king.

 (v) Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and Jizya in 1564 as the two were based on religious discrimination.

 (vi) All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the building and maintenance of places of worship.

 (vii) Instructions were sent to officers of the empire to follow the precept of sulh-i kul in administration.

 (viii) A number of symbols were created for visual representation of the idea of justice which came to stand for the highest virtue of Mughal monarchy.

 (ix) Akbar commissioned the construction of a white marble tomb for Shaikh Salim Chisti next to majestic Friday mosque at shikri.

 (x) On special occasions such as the anniversary of accession to the throne, Id, Shab-i barat and Holi, the court was full of life. 

The physical arrangement of the court, focused on the sovereign, mirrored his status as the heart of society.

(i) The emperor began his day at sunrise with personal religious devotions or prayers, and then appeared on a small balcony, the jharoka, facing the east.

(ii) Jharoka darshan was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority as part of popular faith.

(iii) After spending an hour at the jharoka, the emperor walked to the public hall of audience (diwan-i am) to conduct the primary business of his government. State officials presented reports and made requests.

(iv) Two hours later, the emperor was in the diwan-i khas to hold private audiences and discuss confidential matters. High ministers of state placed their petitions before him and tax officials presented their accounts. Occasionally, the emperor viewed the works of highly reputed artists or building plans of architects (mimar).

(v) On special occasions such as the anniversary of accession to the throne, Id, Shab-i barat and Holi, the court was full of life. Perfumed candles set in rich holders and palace walls festooned with colourful hangings made a tremendous impression on visitors.

Abdur Razzak, a Persian ambassador was greatly impressed by the fortification of Vijayanagara Empire.

(i) They encircled not only the city but also the agricultural hinterland and forests.

(ii) The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city.

(iii) The massive masonry construction was slightly tapered.

(iv) No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the construction.

(v) The stone blocks were wedge shaped, which held them in place, and the inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble.

(vi) Square or rectangular bastions projected outwards.

(vii) Most significant was its enclosed agricultural tracts.

(viii) He noted that' between the first, second and the third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses'.

(ix) There were large granaries within fortified areas.

(x) A second line of fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex, and a third line surrounded the royal centre, within which each set of major buildings was surrounded by walls.

OR

Mughal village Panchayats and headmen regulated the rural society:

(i) The village panchayat was an assembly of elders, usually important people of the village with hereditary rights over their property.

(ii) In mixed-caste villages, the panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body.

(iii) The decisions made by these panchayats were binding on the members.

(iv) The panchayat derived its funds from contributions made by individuals to a common financial pool.

(v) Often these funds were also deployed in construction of a bund or digging a canal which peasants usually could not afford to do on their own.

(vi) One important function of the panchayat was to ensure that caste boundaries among the various communities inhabiting the village were upheld.

(vii) Panchayats also had the authority to levy fines and inflict more serious forms of punishment like expulsions from the community.

(viii) The jati panchayats wielded considerable power in rural society and arbitrated civil disputes between members of different castes.

(ix) Village panchayat was regarded as the court of appeal that would ensure that the state carried out its moral obligations and guaranteed justice.

(x) The decision of the panchayat in conflicts between “lower-caste” peasants and state officials or the local zamindar could vary from case to case.

Detailed records of the Mughal administration were kept in the following ways:

(i) Mir Bakshi supervised the corps of court writers who recorded all the applications and documents presented to the court.

(ii) In addition, agents (wakil) of nobles and regional rulers recorded the entire proceedings of the court under the heading “News from the Exalted Court” (Akhbarat-i Darbar-i Mualla) with the date and time of the court session (pahar).

(iii) The akhbarat contained all kinds of information such as attendance at the court, grant of offices and titles, diplomatic missions, presents received, or the enquiries made by the emperor about the health of an officer.

(iv) This information is valuable for writing the history of the public and private lives of kings and nobles.

(v) News reports and important official documents travelled across the length and breadth of the regions under Mughal rule by imperial post. Round-the-clock relays of foot-runners (qasid or pathmar) carried papers rolled up in bamboo containers.

The expansion and consolidation of Mughal Empire under Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605):

(i) Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) was the greatest of all the Mughal emperors.

(ii) He not only expanded but also consolidated his empire.

(iii) Made it the largest, strongest and richest kingdom of his time.

(iv) He succeeded in extending the frontiers of the empire to the Hindukush mountains

(v) He checked the expansionist designs of the Uzbeks of Turan (Central Asia) and the Safavids of Iran.

The characteristics features of Mughal Chronicles:

(i) Chronicles commissioned by the Mughal emperors are an important source for studying the empire and its court.

(ii) They were written in order to project a vision of an enlightened kingdom to all those who came under its umbrella.

(iii) At the same time they were meant to convey to those who resisted the rule of the Mughals that all resistance was destined to fail. Also, the rulers wanted to ensure that there was an account of their rule for posterity.

(iv) The authors of Mughal chronicles were invariably courtiers. The histories they wrote focused on events centered on the ruler, his family, the court and nobles, wars and administrative arrangements.

(v) Their titles, such as the Akbar Nama, Shahjahan Nama, Alamgir Nama, that is, the story of Akbar, Shah Jahan and Alamgir (a title of the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb), suggest that in the eyes of their authors the history of the empire and the court was synonymous with that of the emperor.

Different aspects of rural Mughal India both sedentary and subsistence with more emphasis on ‘jangli’:

i. Forest dwellers were called jangli

ii. Their livelihood came from the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture.

iii. Being jangli, did not mean an absence of “civilisation”.

iv. The livelihood practices of the forest dwellers were season specific.

v. The Bhils collected forest produce in spring, fished in summer, the monsoon months were for cultivation, and autumn and winter were for hunting.

vi. Abu’l Fazl describes the trade of the hill tribes with traders and villagers of Awadh ( Uttar Pradesh).

vii. They exchanged the forest produce for items like,white and coloured cloth, salt, ornaments, glass and earthen ware.

viii. They sold bees wax, honey,gum, lac etc. This resulted in continuous mobility.
                                                                              OR

Importance of Ain –i-Akbari:

i. The chronicle provides detailed information about Akbar’s Empire

ii. It is an invaluable source to reconstruct the social, political, economic and cultural history

iii. It is a detailed document and a part of Akbarnama written by Abul Fazl C

iv. It is an extraordinary document which gives fascinating glimpses into the structure and organization of the Mughal Empire.
Limitations:

i. Numerous errors in totalling have been detected.

ii. Skewed nature of the quantitative data.

iii. Data were not collected uniformly from all the provinces. Detailed list of prices and wages is mainly taken from areas in and around the Agra

iv. Prices and wages of the richer areas have not been well documented.

15.1. Jesuits were Christian missionaries. They came with the Portuguese traders to the coastal cities of India (Goa). Akbar had invited them for religious debates.

15.2 Monserrate explains his experience about Akbar in the following ways:

i. He is accessible to all who wish to meet him

ii. Describes Akbar as a well liked ruler who gives opportunity to common people and nobles to see him and talk to him.

15.3 Akbar’s courtesy brought affability in the following ways:

i. Akbar was respected by his subjects and Akbar respected all religions.

ii. He occupied himself in interfaith debates at ibadatkhana and was open to new religious ideas and gave freedom to various schools of thought.

iii. He proposed Din-i-ilahi and advocated sulh-i-kul policy and had abolished jiziya and pilgrimage tax.

Akbar’s Darbar were as:

(i) The physical arrangement of the court, focused on the sovereign, mirrored his status as the heart of society.

(ii) Its centrepiece was therefore the throne, which gave physical form to the function of the sovereign as axis mundi.

(iii) The canopy, a symbol of kingship in India for a millennium, was believed to separate the radiance of the sun from that of the sovereign.

(iv) In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king. The place accorded to a courtier by the ruler was a sign of his importance in the eyes of the emperor.

The role of women in the Mughal Agrarian society:

(i) They worked shoulder to shoulder in the fields.Men tilled and ploughed, while women sowed, weeded threshed and winnowed the harvest.

(ii) Artisanal tasks such as spinning yarn, sifting and kneading clay for pottery, and embroidery were among the many aspects of production dependent on female labour.

(iii) They even went to the houses of their employers or to the markets if necessary.

(iv) They were child bearers in a society dependent on labour.

(v)Women were kept under strict control by the family and the community.

(vi) Marriages in many rural communities required the payment of bride-price rather than dowry to the bride’s family.Remarriage was considered legitimate.

(vii) In most cases when women petitioned to the panchayat, their names were excluded from the record: the petitioner was referred to as the mother, sister or wife of the male head of the household.

(viii) Wives protested against the infidelity of their husband. Amongst the landed property, women had the right to inherit property.

Ab’ul Fazal was the author of the Akbar Nama, an adviser and a spokesperson for Akbar Policies.

In his role as court historian, Ab’ul Fazal both shaped and articulated the ideas associated with the reign of Akbar.

Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire:

(i) It was therefore vital for the vital to create an administrative apparatus to ensure control over the agriculture agricultural production. Revenue officials and record keepers penetrated the agricultural domain and became a decisive agent in shaping agrarian relations.

(ii) The Mughal state tried to first acquire specific informations about the extent of agricultural lands in the empire and what these lands produced before fixing the burden of taxes on people.

(iii) The land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages- first, assessment and then actual collection. The jama was the amount assessed, as opposed to hasil, the amount collected.

(iv) While fixing revenue, the attempt of the state was to maximise its claims. Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province.

Abu’l Fazl described the ideal of Sulh-i-kul as the corner stone of enlightened rule:

(i) In sulh-i-Kul all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression but on condition that they did not undermine the authority of the state or flight among themselves.

(ii) The ideal of sulh-i kul was implemented through state policies-the nobility under the mughals was a composite one comprising iranis, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs, Deccanis-all of whom were given positions and awards purely on the basis of their service and loyalty to the king.

(iii) Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and Jizya in 1564 as the two were based on religious discrimination.

(iv) All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the building and maintenance of places of worship.

(i) The nobility was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious groups.
(ii) Nobility was composite one comprising Iranis, Afghans, Rajputs, Shaikhzdas, Deccanis on the basis of their service loyalty to the king.
(iii) This ensured that no faction was large enough to challenge the authority of the state.
(iv) The officer corps of the Mughals was described as a bouquet of flowers (guldasta) held together by loyalty to the emperor. 
(v) People from many races (Arabs, Iranians, Turks, Tajiks, Kurds, Tatars, Russians, Abyssinians, people from Egypt, Syria, Iraq,Arabia, Iran, Khurasan, Turan) –have sought refuge in the imperial court.
(vi) Two ruling groups of Indian origin entered the imperial service- Rajputs and the Indian Muslims.
(vii) Examples- Raja Todar Mal, who belonged to the Khatri caste was Akbar’s finance minister.
(viii) Iranians gained high offices under Jahangir, whose politically influential queen, Nur Jahan (was an Iranian).
(ix) Aurangzeb appointed Rajputs to high positions, and under him the Marathas accounted for a sizeable number within the body of officers.
(ANY FOUR)

(16.1) Mirza Galib and his description:

(i) Mirza Galib was a famous poet.

(ii)He described what the people of Delhi did when the British forces occupied the city in 1857.

(iii)The British over ran the city in all directions.

(iv)Every road in the city from the Kashmiri gate to Chandni Chowk was a battle field.

(v)The rebels held three gates – the Ajmeri , the Turcoman and the Delhi.

(vi) It was the naked spectacles of hatred.

(ANT TWO)

(16.2) Reasons of British attack on Delhi:

(i) Rebels recognized the symbolic value of Delhi.

(ii)To establish the British control over the rebels.

(iii)To uproot the parallel govt. setup by the rebels.

(iv)To suppress the revolt of 1857.

(ANT TWO)

(16.3) The people escaped from Delhi and took their shelter:

(i)They took to precipitate flight through these three gates.

(ii)They took shelter in little villages outside the city.

(iii)They took shelter in shrines outside the city.