Themes In Indian History I Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste And Class

Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on. In ancient India (C. 600 BCE-600CE) patriliny might have been particularly important among elite families because most of the texts (religious and other books) refer mostly about elite families and they do not describe about the ordinary family.

For example, we can take Mahabharata. This epic describes a feud over land and power between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling family, that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of the Janapadas.

By building Buddhist stupas, maths, viharas, different types of statues showing various postures of Lord Buddha, some of the physical things were shown and worshipped as symbols (such as Lotus) by the followers of the Buddhism.

Marriage:

Occupation:

Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on. Here the male sex becomes very important. And tracing such descendancy may have been particularly important among elite families because:

1. Under this rule son could claim the inheritance of father. And if there were many then the eldest son would, thus it eliminates other contending factors.

2. Secondly, daughter is looked as something to be given. After marriage she becomes property of her husband and whatever she has becomes property of her husband. Hence patriliny consist of an idea of keeping the wealth of the house within that house.

Thus by above reasons we can see why it would be important among the elite families, because they are the one with higher social as well as economic status. 

According to the Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda, the four Varnas emerged because of the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man. These Varnas were—Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. These Varnas had different jobs. The Brahmanas enjoyed the supreme position in the society. They used to study Dharmashastras. They also taught others. The Kshatriyas were brave warriors. They ran the administration. The Vaishyas were engaged in trade. The Shudras were destined to serve the above three Varnas. So, there was inequality in the society. In this system, only the birth was the basis of status and prestige in society.

The Buddhist concept was contrary to this Brahmanical notion. They accepted that there was an inequality in the society. But according to them, this inequality was neither natural nor permanent. They also rejected birth as the base of social prestige. They recognized the human agency in creating and institutionalising economic and social relations. And there was other implication that if human beings were responsible for the creation of the system, they could also change it in future

Besides age, gender and kinship ties, there are many other bases to make this list. For example, the respect for teachers, brave warriors, slaves and their sons. All these have been given a due place in the list keeping in mind their social status:

(i) First of all, the highest honours have been bestowed on the Brahmanas, the Purohits and the Gurus who were all widely respected.

(ii) Secondly, respect has been shown to fraternal kins who are also like parents.

(iii) Thereafter have been placed those who are younger or equal in age.

(iv) In this order, the young Kuru warriors have been respected.

(v) After this, the women have been given the due place. In this order come the mothers, wives, daughters-in-law and daughters. They also include beautiful dasis and their sons.

(vi) the orphans and handicapped have also not been ignored. Yudhisthira also salutes or greets them.

When we look into a text such as Mahabharata, one thing that come to notice is the sheer length of it and many characters within the story. We find that it took V S Sukthanker and the team 47 years to produce critically edited Mahabharata of 13000 pages. It took such a long time because there was enormous text in sanskrit written in different scripts with variations. Thus even if look into the variation itself we can be sure that the Mahabharata was not a work of a single author.
As we can see that:

(i) The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battle field and composed poems celebrating their victories and other achievements.

(ii) According to scholars in the beginning Mahabharata’s compositions were circulated orally. This was done by scholars and priests generation to generation. Then from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and began to commit it to writing. This was the time when chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and Panchalas, around whom the story of the epic revolves, were gradually becoming kingdom.

(iii) We notice another phase in the composition of the text between C. 200 BCE and 200 CE. This was the period when the worship of Vishnu was growing in importance, and Krishna, one of the important figures of the epic, was coming to be identified with Vishnu. Subsequently, between C. 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added. With these additions, a text which initially perhaps had less than 10,000 verses grew to comprise about 100,000 verses. This enormous composition is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyasa.

(iv) Moreover there are different version of Mahabharata in sanskrit written in different scripts. Thus it could only meant that there are many version of the story and it could only mean that to create Mahabharat an epic many authors has laboured.

Although Brahmanical texts claimed of their universality but we find many instances in the history that it was not so. Here are some of the examples. When we look into the idea of kinship there  are different ways to define kinship but usually it is understood in the context of family ties. The notion of relative or the idea that we are related. Usually the idea surrounding Kinship is that it is blood related and follows with certain rules and relgulations. for example marrying outside ones kinsfolk. This rules are prescribed in the bahmanical text, but we find that this prasctices varied according to a region. For example in some places marrying cousins are regarded as sin whereas other do not consider cousins to be blood related and marry among cousins.

The idea of exogamy propounded by the Brahmans of marryingoutside ones gotra, was although follwed in wide arrays of society but was it absolute, it could be debated. Because in many textswe find that this rule too was broken even by someone who called themselves Brahmanas. The Satavahanas, were from brahmana caste and claimed themselves to be the one who will break the arrogance of the Kshatriya. But we find many instances for example, the marriage in between the same gotra, or within same kinsfolk. They were also the one who strongly opposed marriages between different varnas but we find that Satavahanas married with many that were sonsidered outside or were not able to put within the fold of caste system.

Thus it is a high claim if we say that brahmanical prescriptions were universally adopted, because even within the kinship and in marriage we find discrepancies which according to the brahmanical text should not exist.

Map - 1

The Kuru-Panchala region and neighbouring areas

Indication - Mahajanapadas: Malla, Koshala, Sakya, Avanti, Matsya, Surasena, Vatsa, Gandhara, Chedi, Vanga, Kuru.

Map - 2 : Hints: Name of the cities:

Hastinapura, Indraprasthi , Virat, Mathura, Ujjayini, Kaushambi, Kapilavastu, Lumbini, Pava, Kushinagara, Vaishali, Sarnath, Varanasi, Bodh Gaya, Shravasti, Pataliputra.

List of Mahajanapadas:

Kamboja, Gandhara, Kuru, Surasena, Matsya, Avanti, Chedi, Vatsa, Ashmaka, Magadha, Anga Shakya, Kashi, Panchala, maila, Koshala.

Self study.

Self study.

The central story of Mahabharata is about two sets of warring cousins, Kauravas and Pandavas. This text also contains sections laying down norms of behaviour for different social groups. The principal character, occasionally, seem to follow these norms.

The war of Mahabharata was fought between Kauravas and Pandavas. It was fought to acquire land and authority. Both the parties were related to Kuru clan. The war was won by the Pandavas.

In Sanskrit texts, the term Kula is used to designated families and the word Jnati refers to the larger network of kinfolk. The term Vamsha is used for lineage.

Familial ties are generally regarded as natural and based on blood. However we find that even that is not universal in its nature because in certain part of India we find that cousins which are considered as kin are not considered so and people marry among cousins.

Patriliny is where one  trace descent from father to son, grandson and so on. On the other hand, matriliny means to trace the descent through the mother.

We find that there are distinction when it comes to marriage between men and women. We find that women are considered as something to be given away, thus we find the concept of Kanyadana or the tradition of giving away daughter. Whereas for men it is the one who brings bride to the home. He is the inheritor of his fathers wealth as well the one who will carry on the family tree.

Indra was one of the principal deities, a god of valour, warfare and rain. People worship the Indra to have a fine son.

The two rules are:

(i) After marriage women have to adopt her husbands gotra name and give up fathers gotra name.

(ii) Members of the same gotra could not marry.

Gandhari was the mother of the Kauravas. She had advised her eldest son Duryodhana not wage a war against the Pandavas. But it had no effect on Duryodhana. He fought against the Pandavas and was defeated.

Gotama and Vasistha were Vedic seers. Gotras of Satvahana kings were taken from their names like

(i) raja Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani.

(ii) raja Vasithi-puta (Sami) Siri Pulumayi.

Endogamy existed in certain south Indian communities between 600 BCE-600 CE and it still exists. Such marriages among kinfolk ensured a close knit community.

Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymics which means that names were derived from that of their mother's. It does indicate that Mother in some level was regarded high in the society.

This thing is not applicable on succession to the throne as it was generally patrilineal.

The Brahmanas adopted the following policies for the obedience of the rules of Varna system:

(i) They told the people that Varna system was a divine in origin as shown in Purusha Sukta.

(ii) They advised kings to ensure compliance of the rules of Varna system.

Any text has its own intricacies as well as difficulties and when it comes to a text like Mahabharata the difficulties multiplies. For example 

1. we have to look at language and its content- whether it is in sanskrit or in any other languages, and what are its content, whether it a mantra or a chants or narrative because it gives us intended audience. For example mahabharata is written in sanskrit languagebut it is fairly simple sanskrit, thus we know that it was to be understoodby the general masses.

2. Author and dates- we have to see who wrote it because it gives us the intention of the author and dates, it clears us at what time it was written and helps us make conjecture.

According to Dharmashastras, two ideal occupations of Brahmanas are:

(i) Study and teach the Vedas.

(ii) Perform sacrifices and get sacrifices performed and give and receive gifts.

Shakas, who came from Central Asia were regarded as ‘mlechchhas’ or the barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas.

Rudradaman was their best known ruler and one of the major contributions of Rudradaman was that he rebuilt Sudarshana lake.

The ideal occupation of kshatriya are:

(i) Kshatriyas were expected to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice.

(ii) They were expected to study the Vedas, get sacrifices peformed and give gifts.

The most challenging episodes in the Mahabharata was the declaration of Draupadi as the common wife of the Pandavas. When Arjuna won the competition of marrying Draupadi then they returned home with her. Kunti, mother of the Pandavas, even before she saw them, asked them to share whatever they had got. In this ways Draupadi become their common wife.

Exogamy refers to marriage outside the unit. That is one cannot marry within same gotra or kinfolk. One reasons could be that by doing it, it can can control the confusion otherwise it will create in the relationships inside the family whereby the organisational and functional efficiency of the family would be lost.

Two strategies adopted by Brahmanas for enforcing the norms prescribed for different varnas were:

1. One, to assert that the varna order was of divine origin.

2. Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms.

Who wrote the original text of Mahabharata? This is a question to which there are several answers. The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their victories and other achievements.

These compositions circulated orally. Then from the fifth century BCE, Brahmans took over the story and began to commit it to writing.

This was the time when chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and Panchalas, around whom the story of the epic revolves, were gradually becoming kingdoms.

The two observations are

1. The houses were made of reed walls and plastered with muds.

2. Houses of this period were built of mud-brick as well as burnt bricks.

According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, several important ruling lineages probably had different origins.

1. The social background of the Mauryas, who ruled over a large empire, has been hotly debated. While Later Buddhist texts suggested they were Kshatriyas, Brahmanical texts described them as being of 'low' origin.

2. The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact, political power was effectively open to anyone who could muster support and resources, and rarely depended on birth as a Kshatriya.

3. Satavahanas considered themselves to be Brahmanas.

Thus we can find that it was not so, it was basically anyone with talentm, support or resources could have been rulers.

Sangrihitris were the officers who collected the taxes and tributes in the Later Vedic period.

Vajapeya Yajna - was a soma-yajna - the offering of Soma formed an essential part of the yajna, along with killing of other animals. Soma was extracted thrice, and cattle was offered to Agni. Like the Rajasuya, the ceremony was preceded by a long period of consecrations and sacrifices, and the sacrificer and his wife lived an austere life in adjacent rooms/huts. 

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It was the land of the Aryans, covering modern Uttar Pradesh. Magadha was place outrick the pale of the holy Aryavarta and the people of Magadha were looked down upon by the orthodox Brahmanas.

It literally means twice born. Dvija were from those caste that could read sacred scriptures, wear sacred thread and those who were not considered as impure. They were, brahmanas, kshatriya and vaishyas.

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Nishadas were a hunting community and were considered to be of a low birth.

According to the Manusmriti, the paternal property should be equally divided among all the sons after the death of their parents. However the eldest son is entitled to a special share. The women were not allowed to demand any share in this property.

Literally Stridhana meant a woman's wealth. The wealth could be inherited by her children without the husband having any claim on it. The women were allowed to keep the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage. It was considered as her Stridhana. However she could not hoard any family property as valuables.

Two main criteria, during epic age for an access to wealth were gender and Varna.

Features:

(i) Only sons had the right over father's property on the basis of gender. Women could not claim a share of these resources.

(ii) The only occupation prescribed for Shudras was service of higher three Varnas. But a variety of occupations were listed for men of the first three Varnas.

No, silk weavers were not following the occupation laid down for them in the Shastras. Some weavers were intensely attached to music and some were authors. Some were excellent in religious studies and  religious rites. Some weavers were valorous in battle.

Some people were engaged in occupations like handling corpses and dead animals. These occupations were considered as impure. Those who performed such tasks were designated as Chandalas. They were placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy and were considered as untouchables.

Under the wing V S Sukthankar, an eminent sanskritist many scholars began the work to produce critical edition of Mahabharata. They began to collect verses in sanskrit language written in various scripts. Some of the methods they used were:

1. First they compared the various text in various scripts.

2. Secondly they selected the verses that appeared common to most versions and began to compile it in a single edition.

Their findings were fascinating

1. There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in manuscripts found all over the subcontinent.

2. There also were enormous regional variations in the ways in which the text had been transmitted over the centuries.

According to the Manusmriti the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest, women could not claim a share of these resources.

However, women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana (literally, a women's wealth). This could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on it. At the same time, the Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property, or even their own valuables, without the husband's permission.

Mahabharata does provide us a view into the society of that period. Some of it are:

1. Patriliny- The idea of patriliney can be found in abundance within the epic, for example the very war that the two cousin fought was on the fued of who should get what. Pandavas claimed that they were rightful owner because there father was the rightful ruler enthroned by thier grandfather. Whereas kauravas believed that it was thiers because according to the law their father who was the eldest should have got it. There is no mention of women contending for the throne ever.

2. Varna and the Dharma- We also find ample mention of varna and its dharma. A person should follow what hi or her caste allows. The story of Eklavya, a Nishada is not permitted to learn archery by Drona because of his birth.

3. we also see how some norms are broken for example marriage between the similar caste, Bhima's marriage to Hidimba is one of the example.

4. Kinship ties are also mentioned profusely, where the decision of the elder is never questioned and followed closed eye.

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Caste system in ancient Indian Society:

it refers to a set of social categories that are ordered hierarchically. The ideal order as conceived by Brahmanas and was laid down in texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras (mid first millennium BCE onwards). The Brahmanas claimed to be at the top of the hierarchy,ksatriya and vaishya after them. These three caste are also called as Dvija or twice born. The last caste in the hierarchy is called shudra, who were supposed to the menial jobs. They were not Dvijas.

There are also a stratum that are considered to be so impure that they are situated outside the caste system. They are called untouchables.

The caste system are defined by birth, you are born to a caste and until death one cannot escape it. And it is claimed by the Brahmans that the caste system was divinely ordained.

Manusmriti is an ancient Hindu law book, that prescribes function of each varnas. The Manusmriti laid down what it described as the duties of the chandalas. They were expected to live outside the village; use discarded bowls, with dogs and donkeys as their wealth. They were to wear the clothes of the dead, and eat out of broken dishes; wear ornaments of black iron, and wander constantly. They were not to walk about in villages and cities at night. They had to handle the bodies of those who had no relatives and act as executioners.

Much later, in the account of his travels, the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian (5th century CE) wrote that the ‘untouchables’ had to sound a clapper in the streets of the town to warn the people of their presence. Another Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang, (7th century CE) observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to live outside the city and their houses were marked.

For men, the Manusmriti declares, there are seven means of acquiring wealth. These are:

Inheritance, finding, purchase, conquest, investment, work, and acceptance of gifts from good people.

And the six means for women:

What was given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridal procession, or as a token of affection, and what she got from her brother, mother or father. In addition, any subsequent gift and whatever her affectionate husband might give her.

With the beginning of the Later Vedic Age the social life of the Indians underwent some major changes (particularly in north India). These changes continued taken place even after Later Vedic Age about 400 A.D.

(i) The most important of these changes was that Varna system was fully established during this period (400 B.C. to 400 A.D.) The Brahmanas were the supreme in this four-fold divisions of the society. Earlier they were just-one by the system categories of priest. But now they became synonymous with the total priesthood.

(ii) The sacrificing tradition was perpetuated by the Varna (The Brahmanas). It is speculated the priest of non-Aryan origin were also taken into-the-Brahmanas Varna.

(iii) Kshatriyas were second in social hierarchy or ranks. They were warrior class who ruled over society or state and protected the poeple. It may be said that Rajan in earlier period became Kshatriya in Later Vedic Age or earlier epic age.

(iv) Some of the historians declare that in Mahabharata age the relationship that existed that Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas were not cordial. There were instances of tensions and conflicts among them on the question of supremacy in society. At the same time stress was laid on the close co-operation between the two to maintain order and kept other Varnas subordination.

(v) The third social rank was given to Vaishyas. They engaged themselves in productive activities such as agriculture, different crafts and trade. They paid tribute to Kshatriyas and Dan (donation) to Brahmanas.

(vi) The common social roots of these three Varnas are reflected in the fact that they were entitled to put on sacred thread and were called twice-born (Dvij).

(vii) During this period we also see the prescribe role of Chandalas, the notion of untouchables gaining its root deep into society.

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Some of the changes in education system during the Mahabharata age are:

(i) During Mahabharata age education was systematic and restricted. The Shudra did not enjoy the right of education.

(ii) During Mahabharata age education for all was not accepted by the so called and considered upper classes of Indian society. Only Dvij or twice born- so called because of upanayan ceremony, were entitled to get education.

(iii) The education was imparted at the home of teachers who were Brahmanas. It continued for number of years. It was oral and student learnt by heart or they roted the chapters.

(iv) There were some wandering teachers who went round from place to place, teaching and preaching. Meetings of learned scholars were held frequently. There were many women scholars too. Two famous names of women scholars found in literature are Gargi and Maitrey. However they were exceptional cases.

In overall the education system was hierarchical and restrictive.

Caste system is a set of hierarchically ordered social categories. It means it move from high to low order. Where Brahmanas are at the top and Shudras at the bottom.

1. During the epic age we find that the rigidity of caste system growing. The social mobility is almost over and each person were supposed to work according to his own caste.

2.  Inter dining and intermixing was frowned upon.

3. Punishment for the same crime varied according to the caste of the criminal. The harsest punishment was given to the Shudras.

4. We also find that intercaste marriage were forbidden. One was suppose to marry within one's own caste.

I think that modern writers like Mahashweta Devi should have the freedom to rewrite stories from the Mahabharata. I give the following reasons for my answer:

(i) India is the largest democracy in the world. It grants several fundamental rights to its citizens. The freedom of expression is one of the most important fundamental and civil rights of the people in a liberal democratic country like India.

(ii) If India will not allow she will go somewhere else and she will write. This is an era of global network, computer and mass-media. Perceptions, outlooks, ideas cannot be chained.

(iii) If some authors like Mahashweta Devi tries to draw our attention towards certain ills of the society or socio-religious practices, we should not condemn. No doubt in every society we find different types of evils. Values are changeable.

(iv) When we look at what she has wriitten, she has not changed any content of the epic but she is adding to it. And moreover epic is not anyone's property and it has no intellectual rights owned by anyone. Only problem is the one who consider it to be sacred and should not be changed.

While studying the literary traditions or sources, the historians should keep the following points in their minds:

(i) They should examine the language of the book. They should see if it is in the Pali, Prakrit or Tamil language — the language of the common people or if it is in Sanskrit, the language of the priests of the distinct or the elite people.

(ii) The book is in what form - whether it is in the form of the Mantras chanted by the ritual specialists or it is in narrative form, that is stories read, heard and retold by the people.

(iii) To get information about the author of the book as his attitude and views, perspective and ideas affect the writing of the book.

(iv) For whom the book written, as the author must have keep in his mind the taste and interest of the readers or audience.

(v)To get information about the period of the creation or compilation of the book and to analyse its background.

When we look at the content and language of the Mahabharata, we find that scholars use different methods. 

Language- When it comes to language we find that scholars usually look for in what kind of language it was written. Whether it was in prakrit, Pali, or any other language  that is usually used by the common people. However we find that the sanskrit used in the epic is fairly simple as compared to vedas and other text. Thus scholars are of the opinion that the epic was meant for the common people.


Contents- After clearification of the language then scholars look for the content. In content we find that scholars has divived it into two sections. The narrative part and the didactic part. However we find that the division of the two are not watertight. We find didactics in the narrative portion and narrative in the didactics. 

Although the epic is often mentioned as Itihasa or thus it was, or generally translated as history. However scholars highly doubt about the authenticity of the epic as history. While other thinks that it could be possible that the memory of an actual conflict amongst kinfolk was preserved in the narrative. Although BB Lal did some excavation and there was some evidences but still we are not able to authenticate the facticity of epic.

In the ancient society, the position of the untouchables was very pitiable. They were kept at the lowest place in the society. They were assigned the following duties:

(i) They were compelled to live outside the village. 

(ii) They used discarded utensils. They wore clothes worn out by the dead at the time of their death. They wore ornaments made of iron.

(iii) They were not allowed to move or walk in the village at night.

(iv) They had to perform last rites of those dead persons who had no relative. They also acted as the hang-man.

(v) Fa Xian a chinese buddhist travelle writes that the untouchables have to carry a pot so as to spit in it thus to avoid dirtying the place and have to sound clapper before entering any town so as to warn the upper caste to avoid seeing them.

According to rules and practices of the ancient Indian society kingship belong to second Varna of the society i.e. Kshtriyas. They were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice.

In Purusha Sukta, ( Primeval Man) a hymn in rig veda we find that The Brahmana was his mouth, of his arms was made the Kshatriya. His thighs became the Vaishya, of his feet the Shudra was born. Which makes brahmanas the top of all four varnas and kshatriya second, and so on and so forth. Each varnas were assigne there own roles and had their own duties to perform. And duties prescribed by the varnas were suppose to be done by the one who were born in that varna. Now when  it came to kingship and becoming kings, it was in the hands of Kshatriya. Other varnas were not to be kings.
But we find that there are discrepancies in the rule prescribed by the Brahmanas. for example, the origin of Maurya is debated, some believe them to be kshatriya while other see them as having low birth. There are cases for example brahmana being kings. Thus we can see that rules and regulation mattered little when you could muster support and resources.
But according to the Brahmanical law it was the ksatriya that could be king.

 Although it is hard to trace merit of a caste system, but it could have advantageous for those who were upper caste, hence here some of the merits

1. It kept the competition in various field checked according to the varnas only, hence it was lot easier for Kshatriya to deal with Kshatriya, brahmanas with brahmanas etc.

2. It made the position of the top three varnas permanent by giving it the idea of divine origin and as well as by birth.

3. It kept the power of the society limited to only upper section of the varna. Hence it was easier to rule without any revolt from below.

II. Disadvantages of Caste System.

(i) Setback to national feeling the people could not mix up with one another on account of racial narrowness. Hence they treated the other castes or even their nation as inferior to their own caste. It was quite against the national interest.

(ii) Strengthening of untouchability . The evil of untouchability poisoned the atmosphere of the entire society. The higher castes began to look down upon the lower castes. They were refused entry in the temples. They could not step on the village well and could not even enter the public places. They were scared and were beaten black and blue. Free labour was extracted from them. The high castes people made them lead a wretched life.

(iii) This caste system made mobility of anyone impossible, it restricted someone in the caste to follow only the prescribed duties.

(iv) Basically the caste system made the lower caste to be treated worse than the animal.

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(i) Mahabharata’s historical facts are doubted by a few European historians. According to them a few of the characters of Mahabharata are historical but most of the events are imaginary. In the Mahabharata, the Pandavas are mentioned as brothers of the Kauravas but in Vedic literature, name of Kauravas is found mentioned several times, but there is no mention of the Pandavas. Waber in his History of Indian Literature, has written that “The character of the Pandavas is imaginary and it has been added to the Mahabharata later on. Besides, these supporting rulers of the Pandavas and the Kauravas mentioned in the Mahabharata were not at all contemporaries”.

(ii) There are some scholars who believe in the facticity of the tale. Archaeologist BB Lal went a long distance to prove it, he dugged a placed named Hastinapura, the name resembles the one mentioned in the text but we really do not know whether they are the same. Although in some other texts we find the names mentioned in Mahabharata, so it looks like some figures were historical.

(iii) Mahabharata is an important source to know the facts about social life of that age. In this epic we find descriptions of caste system, about social evils, about position of the women, about political system and war strategy etc. And it becomes very useful in constructing social history of that time.

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A. As a teacher, it was justified as he vowed to make Arjun his best student.
B. Eklavya was from lower who had excelled his archery without any teaching.
C. No, he did not. He was a very disciplined student with excellence in archery. 

Lingayats disapproved practices of the Dharmashashtra were:

(ii)They worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga . They do not practice funerary rites such as cremation , prescribed in the Dharmashashtra. Instead , they ceremonially bury their dead.

(ii)They encouraged practices such as post puberty marriage and the remarriage of windows disapproved in the Dharmashashtras.

(15.1) Guru Drona refused to have Ekalavya as his pupil because Drona was a Brahmana and knew his dharma while Ekalavya was a forest dweller and belonged to nishada (a hunting community).

(15.2)Ekalavya immediately acknowledged Drona’s demand and honoured him as his teacher.

(15.3)Two versions of Guru –Shishya Parampara:

(a)Drona kept his word of making his favourite student Arjuna  as unrivalled amongst his pupils.

(b)Ekalavya unhesitatingly had cut off his right thumb when Drona demanded it.

It was composed under the leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar.

 The elements considered:

 (i) They selected the verses that appeared common to most versions.

 (ii) There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in manuscripts found all over the subcontinent.

 (iii) When issues of social history were explored for the first by historians in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, they tended to take these texts at face value-believing that everything that was laid down in these text was actually practiced.

 (iv) The studies indicated that the ideas contained in normative Sanskrit texts were, on the whole, recognized as authoritative: they were also questioned and occasionally even rejected.

(14.1) Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta, had written the above Prashasti. Historians often attempt to draw factual information from such compositions, those who composed and read them often treasured them as works of poetry.

 (14.2)  Samudragupta is compared to gods as:

  (i) He was without an antagonist on earth and was adorned by Hundreds for multitude of overflowing good qualities.

 (ii) He being the cause of the prosperity of the good and destruction of the bad.

 (14.2) under patriliny, sons could claim the resources including the throne in the case of kings of their fathers when the latter died. Sometimes there were no sons, in that situations brothers succeeded one another and sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne.

 (14.3)  The citizens of Hastinapura express their preference for the Pandavas as they were more capable and virtuous than the Kauravas.

The two rules:
(i)Each Gotra was named after a Vedic seer.
(ii) Members of same Gotra could not marry.

The various stages:

(i) The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their victories and other achievements.

(ii) These compositions circulated orally.

(iii) Then, from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and began to commit it to writing.

(iv) The new kings want their itihasa to be recorded and preserved more systematically.

(v) This was the period when the worship of Vishnu was growing in importance, and Krishna, one of the important figures of the epic, was coming to be identified with Vishnu. Subsequently, between c. 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added. This enormous composition is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyasa.

The five elements considered by the historians while analyzing the texts:

(i) They examine whether texts were written in Prakrit, Pali or Tamil, languages that were probably used by ordinary people, or in Sanskrit, a language meant almost exclusively for priests and elites.

(ii) They also consider the kinds of text. Were these mantras, learnt and chanted by ritual specialists, or stories that people could have read, or heard, and then retold if they found them interesting?

(iii) Besides, they try to find out about the authors whose perspectives and ideas shaped the text, as well as the intended audience, as, very often, authors keep the interests of their audience in mind while composing their work.

(iv) And they try and ascertain the possible date of the composition or compilation of the texts as well as the place where they may have been composed.

(v) It is only after making these assessments that they draw on the content of texts to arrive at an understanding of their historical significance.

(1) The citizens of Hastinapura expressed their preference for Pandavas because they were more capable and virtuous than the Kauravas.

(2) Reactions of Duryodhana against Pandavas: He was jealous. He felt that the sons of Dhritarashtra would be excluded from the royal succession and will be looked down upon.

(3) Under patriliny, sons could claim the resources of their father after their death. Sometimes when there were no sons then brothers succeeded one another. Sometimes, other kinsmen claimed the throne and in exceptional cases women exercised power

                                                                  OR
(i) Makkhali Gosala told King Ajatasatru:

Pleasure and pain cannot be altered in the course of Samsara. We can gain nothing by virtue of Karma and we can lose nothing by not doing the karma.

(2) Ajita Kesakambalin said:

Human being is made of four elements when he dies he will be returned to the earth. Both fools and wise perish after death.

(3) Fatalists believed that life is pre-determined and karma cannot change it. He gave an example-Just as a ball of string when thrown unwind to its full length so fool and wise alike will take their course and make an end of the sorrow.

The duties laid down in ‘Manusmriti’ for the Chandals:

(i) They had to live outside the village.

(ii) They had to use discarded utensils.

(iii) They had to wear clothes of the dead and ornaments of iron.

(iv) They could not walk about in villages and cities at night.

(v) They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives and serve as executioners.

The version of the Mahabharata we have been considering is in Sanskrit (although there are versions in other languages as well).

(i) However, the Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata is far simpler than that of the Vedas, or of the prashastis. As such, it was probably widely understood.

(ii) Historians usually classify the contents of the present text under two broad heads – sections that contain stories, designated as the narrative. The sections that contain prescriptions about social norms, designated as didactic.

(iii) This division is by no means watertight – the didactic sections include stories, and the narrative often contains a social message.

(iv) However, generally historians agree that the Mahabharata was meant to be a dramatic, moving story, and that the didactic portions were probably added later.

(v) The text is described as an itihasa within early Sanskrit tradition. The literal meaning of the term is “thus it was”, which is why it is generally translated as “history”.

”The mid first millennium BCE is often regarded as a turning point in the World History.”

(i) It saw the emergence of thinkers such as Zarathustra in Iran, Kongzi in China, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India.

(ii) New Kingdom and cities were developing.

(iii) Many new ideas are found in Upanishads eg: life after death; meaning of life; the idea of rebirth etc.

(iv) Development of Mahayana Buddhism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism and goddess cults.

(v) The socio economic life was changing.

(1) The traders from abroad used to send large ships to these market-towns, Malabar on account of the great quantity and bulk of pepper and malabathrum (possibly cinnamon, produced in these regions).

(2) Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage. Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest to be minted and used.

(3) Bead-making industry used precious and semi-precious stones and exported it.

(4) Those who traversed these routes included peddlers who probably travelled on foot and merchants who travelled with caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals. Also, there were seafarers, whose ventures were risky but highly profitable.
                                                                               OR

(1) The controversies of boundaries arise due to the ignorance.

(2) The ways to solve the boundary problems:

(i) Demarcation of boundary

(ii) Preparation of authentic map

(3) India faces border problems with Pakistan, China and Bangladesh.

14.1 The story helped in shaping values and ethos of the society in the following ways:

i. Stories contained in the Ramayana and Mahabharata often reinforced the norms prescribed by the Brahmanas

ii. The story shows integration of the communities beyond the varnas into the varna order

14.2. Even though Hidimba’s community did not fall in the Brahmanical order, her marriage outside her family can be considered a unique example of exogamy

14.3 Hidimba and Yudhishthira interpretation of Dharma:

i. Hidimba challenged patriliny by going against her brother and held love to be above acceptable social norms.

ii. Yudhishthira was known as Dharmaraja, the upholder of Dharma who had upheld the patriarchal norms of society.

iii. He gave sanction to the unique marriage within the Brahmanical framework. He upheld dignity of Hidimba, marriage and love above the accepted social norms.

(15.1 )Hidimba’s social practices not influenced by the Brahminical ideas as :

(i) She belonged to the rakshasa clan.

(ii) In Sanskrit texts they are often describe as odd, uncivilized or even animal-like.
(15.2)Hidimba’s clan was considered uncivilized in the Sanskrit text because they were not influenced by bramhminical ideals and were even like animal.
(15.3)The philosophy of dharamsutras about the endogamy not applied in the story as Pandavas were the ksahtriya clan and were influenced by brahminical ideas in which endogamy was given stress on but in the case of bhima, he married to the rakshasa clan girl, Hidimba which highlighted exogamy.

The ideal of patriarchy:

(i) While patriarchy had existed prior to the composition of the epic, the central story of the Mahabharata reinforced the idea that it was valuable.

(ii) Most ruling dynasties claimed to follow this system, although there were variations in practice.

(iii) The concern with patriarchy wes not unique to ruling families. It is evident in mantras in ritual texts such as the Rigveda.

(iv) It is possible that these attitudes were shared by wealthy men and those claimed high status, including Brahmanas.

Rules of marriage:

(i) While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this frame work. They had no claims to the resources of the household.

(ii) At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable.

(iii) The belief of Kanyadan, the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.

(iv) The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastra recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as good while the remaining were condemned.

(i) In Sanskrit texts populations whose social practices were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas are often described as odd, uncivilised, or even animal-like.

(ii) In some instances, these included forest-dwellers –for whom hunting and gathering remained an important means of subsistence.

(iii) Categories such as the Nishada, to which Ekalavya is supposed to have belonged, are examples of this.

(iv) Others who were viewed with suspicion included populations such as nomadic pastoralists, who could not be easily accommodated within the framework of settled agriculturists who spoke non Sanskritic languages were labelled as Melachhas.

(v) While the Brahmanas considered some people as being outside the system, they also developed a sharper social divide by classifying certain social categories as “untouchables but historians have tried to find out whether chandalas accepted the life of degradation prescribed in the shastras.

(vi) Hidimba marrying Bhima against the social practices prescribed in the Dharamshastras.

(vii) Others who were viewed with suspicion included population such as Pastoralist.

(viii) Whenever brahamanical authorities encountered new groups which did not easily fit into the fourfold varna system they classified them as Jatis.

(ix) Aspects related with Non- Kshatriyas king.

(x) Many new questions were raised alternate traditions like Buddhism.

(xi) Jainism appealed to lower class a s believe all, things are animated and all are equal.

(xii) Metronymics was followed the Satavahanas.

(xiii) The case of chandala named Matanga given in Matanga Jataka.

(xiv) Prabhavati Gupta had access to property unlike other daughters.
(ANY EIGHT)