India And The Contemporary World Ii Chapter 1 The Rise Of Nationalism In Europe

Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoe in 1807. Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had become a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. At a young age of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He, subsequently, founded two underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty. Following his model, secret societies were set-up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republic frightened the conservatives. Metternich (monarch rule of Austria) described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of existing social order’.

Count Camillo de Cavour had led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. Count Cavour was neither a rovolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian.

The Greek War of Independence was an event that had mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821. Nationalist in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many Weat Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists  lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the church of St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. While the opposition of the aristrocracy and military became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded. In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.

In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist- such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire- women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. monarchy with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles-a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of formation or joining union or association.

The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in, political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. This fact was evident from Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul where women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors gallery.

From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. They were:

(i)The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

(ii) A new French flag ,Tricolour flag was chosen to replace the the former royal standard.

(iii) The Estates General was renamed as National Assembly.

(iv) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of nation.

(v) French was made a common language of the nation.

(vi) Uniform laws for all citizens within its territory were formulated.

Marianne and Germania were the allegories of French and German nation respectively.

Marianne : She underlined the idea of people's nation. Her Characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic- the red cap, the tricolour and the cockade. She was erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.

Germania : Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism. 

Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative to nation- building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.
Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years- with Austria, Denmark and France- ended in Prussian victory and completed the proces of German unification.
In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in ceremony held at Versailles.

Tips: -

M. Imp.

Napoleon Bonaparte incorporated revolutionary principles in administrative field in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.

(i)The Civil Code of 1804- usually known as the Napoleonic Code- did away with all privileges based on bith, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.

(ii)Napolean simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

(iii)In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication system were improved.

(iv)Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.

(v)Uniform laws, standardised weight and measures and a common national currency were introduced.

Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many European countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle class was undertaken. The revolution of 1848 had brought about the abdiction of the monarch and e republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.

(i)They wanted to create a nation-state on parlimentary principles- a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.

(ii) The extention of universal adult franchise to the women.

(iii) The removal of sefdom and bonded labour.

Culture played an important role in the growth of nationalism in Europe:

Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develope a particular form of nationalist sentiment.
(i)German philosopher Johann Gottfried claimed that the German culture was to be discovered among the common people through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building.

(ii)Karol Kurpinski, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

(iii)The Grimm brothers also saw French domination as a threat to German culture, and believed that the folktales they had collected were expresions of a pure and authentic German spirit.

With a focus on Germany and Italy, how nations developed over the nineteenth century has been explained.

Development of Germany as a nation state:

(i) A large number of political associations whose members were middle class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans as members were formed in Germany.

(ii) Before beginning of modern age some serious economic problems came up in Germany. Hunger, hardship and popular revolt emerged in Germany. Germany was divided in several states due to autocractic rule, people were suffering in Germany. There were conservative forces like that of Junkers (big landlords) who did not want to accept the concept of nation-state.

(iii) Romantic imagination and national feelings also became a major factor for formation of nation-state. Johann Gottfried Herder of Germany popularised the true spirit of nation through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances.

(iv)Otto von Bismarck had architected the process of unification with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. In Germany three wars against Austria, Denmark and France were fought over seven years.

Development of nation state in Italy:

(i)Like Germany, Italy too had along history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire.

(ii) Italy was divided into several states. These were being ruled by dynasties like Habsburg, Pope and Bourbon dynasty. Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. 

(iii) Caricature of Garibaldi of Italy helped a lot in stimulating nationalistic feeling among masses.

(iv) Cavour established a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and won two Sicilies.

The model of the nation or the nation state, some scholars have argued, is Great Britain.

(i) In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century.

(ii) The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones-such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands.

(iii) The English Parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its centre, came to be forged.

(iv) The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.

(v) The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence.

(vi) The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

(vii) Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to impose their dominance over a large Catholic country.

(viii) Catholic revolts against British dominance were brutally suppressed. After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

(ix) A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language - were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans.

(i) The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variations comprising modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Crotia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose habitants were called Slavs. A large part was under control of Ottoman Empire.

(ii) The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very Explosive.

(iii) The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.

(iv) The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each-other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.

(v) Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry. Each power - Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary, etc., were keen on controlling the hold of other powers over the Balkans and each among them was keen to extend its own control over the area.

A.

In 1804

B.

1821

B.

An artist

A.

Matternich

A.

In 1707

D.

Quwait

C.

Mazzini

D.

In 1848

B.

Treaty of Constantinople

A.

Between 1859-1861

D.

Cavour

B.

Liberty, equality and fraternity

D.

 A custom union

A.

Metternich

Tips: -

M. Imp.

B.

In 1801 C.E.

B.

The French Revolution of 1789

A.

Bavaria

A.

Austria–Hungary

B.

Aristocracy

B.

England

D.

19th century

B.

Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria

C.

The existing German confederation of 39 states was broken up.

A.

It means the right to vote

C.

despotism

A.

Landed aristocracy

C.

only property owning men

D.

all of these

D.

all of these

A.

The Prussian Chancellor-Bismarck

B.

The Prussian King–William I

A.

Britannio–the British nation

D.

1797

C.

elle

B.

conservatism

D.

All of these

D.

All of these

C.

The empire established by Turkey

C.

press

C.

1859

B.

Louis XVI

A.

Palace of Versailles

C.

Italian revolutionary

A.

1848

A.

National Assembly

D.

All of these

C.

Both (a) and (b)

A.

Greece

D.

all of these

D.

Bismarck

D.

All of these

D.

All of these

A.

The Balkans

D.

All of these

B.

As female figures

D.

all of these

D.

The Balkans were not under the control of Ottoman Empire

D.

They favoured the idea of liberty and freedom

(a) Frederic Sorrieu : Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a world made up of democratic and social republics. He had prepared his print in 1848.

(b) Ernest Renan : Ernest Renan was a French philosopher who had outlined his understanding of what makes a nation in a lecture delivered at the University of Sorbonne in 1882. The lecture was subsequently published as a famous essay entitled ‘Quest-ce qu’une nation?’ (‘What is a Nation?’)

Tips: -

Imp.

(a) Economists began to think in terms of the national economy. They talked of how the nation could develop and what economic measures could help forge the nation together. Friedrich List, Professor of Economics at the University of Tubingen in Germany expressed that zollverein, a customs union wiil strenghthen the nation materially as much by proctecting its interest externally as by stimulating its internal productivy.

(b)Liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representatives goverment through parliament. It had also stressed the inviolability of private property. In the economic sphere, Liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state- imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

Significance:

(i) Being freed. 

(ii) Symbol of the German empire-strength.

(iii) Heroism.

(iv) Readiness to fight.

(v) Willingness to make peace.

(vi) Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by the Dukes of the German states.

(vii) Beginning of a new era.

(a) Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment.

(b) Young Italy was a underground society founded by Giuseppe Mazzini in Marseilles, for dissemination of his goals.

Otto Von Bismarck was the chief minister, who had architected the process of unification of Germany with the help of the Prusian army and bureaucracy.

Conservatism is a political philosophy that stressed importance of tradition, established institutions and customs and preferred gradual development to quick change.

They are liberty, equality and fraternity.

Zollverein was a custom union, formed in 1834 at the inititives of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. This union abolished tariff barriers and reduce the number of currencies from over 30 to two. It created a wave of economic nationalism which strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.

Artists had started representing a country as if were a person. Nations were protrayed as female figures. The female forms that were chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular women in real life; rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concreate form. Infact, female figure became an allegory of the nation.  

For example in France she was christened Marianne, which underlined the idea of a people's nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of liberty and the Republic.

Similarly Germania became the allegory of German nation, a female figure wearing a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Romanticism refers to a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of national sentiment.

(i) Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focussed on emotion, intention and mystical feeling.

(ii) Their effort was to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common culture past, as the basis of nation.

(iii) Some German romantics believed that through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances, the true spirit of the nation be popularised. German culture was to be discovered among common people.

Socially and politically, the landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions.

(i) They owned estates in countryside and also town houses.

(ii) They spoke French for the purpose of diplomacy and in high society.

The reaction of the local population against the administrative changes introduced by Napoleon were mixed.

(i) In many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcome as harbingers of liberty.

(ii)But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom.

(ii) Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweight the advantages of the administrative changes.

It was a patchwork because:

(i) It included the Alpine region of Tyrol, Austria and Sudetenland - as well as Bohemia, where the aristrocracy was predominantly German-Speaking.

(ii) It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.

(iii) In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristrocracy spoke Polish.

Ireland was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to impose their dominance over a largely Catholics country. Catholics revolts against British dominance were suppressed. After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen in 1798, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

Matternich remarked so because the Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. Political upheaval in France (1830) had sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the kingdom of Netherlands.

Giuseppe Garibaldi is perhaps the most celebrated of Italian freedom fighters. He came from a family engaged in coastal trade and a sailor in the merchant navy. In 1833 he met Mazzini, joined the young Italy movement and participated in a republican uprising in piedmont in 1834. In 1854, Garibaldi led the famous Expedition of the thousands to South Italy. In 1867, Garibaldi had led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy, the Papal State where a French garrison was stationed.

Tips: -

V. Imp.

Frederic Sorrieu, the French artist, prepared a series of four prints;

(i) The first print of the series, show the peoples of Europe and America — men and women of all ages and social classes-marching in a long train. These offering homage to Statue of Liberty as they pass by it.

(ii) Second print is that of allegory of liberty in female figure holding torch of enlightenment in one hand and Charter on Rights of Man on the other.

(iii) The third print is that of shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.

(iv) The fourth print refers to his utopian vision in which the peoples of the world are shown marching together on the path of development. It is a vision of world peace and prosperity.

The similaritis between Germany and Italy in the process of unification were:

(i) Both the countries (Italy and Germany) were divided into small states which lacked unity.

(ii) Napoleon Bonaparte encouraged (indirectly) unification and nationalism in these two countries.

(iii) The Vienna Congress (of 1815) again divided these countries into smaller states.

(iv) Both suffered the reactionary policies of Austria.

(v) Efforts (by the revolutionaries) were made in 1830 C.E. and 1848 C.E. but failed.

(vi) Both had to battle against Austria.

(vii) The unifications in both the countries were not accomplished by the people but by the rulers themselves.

(viii) After their liberation and unification, both Germany and Italy became monarchies instead of the republics.

(ix) The Prime Ministers of Germany and Italy, Bismarck and Cavour respectively, made much contribution in the unification of their respective countries through the diplomatic moves and wars.

(x) Though the democratic and revolutionary leaders and people played vital role in the unification of these countries, yet they were loyal to their respective kings.

Tips: -

M. Imp.

In the wake of industrialisation, the new group which came into being were a woking- class population, and middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, profesionals. It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

This is best proved by the following policies:

(i) Increased in taxation

(ii) Imposition of Censorship

(iii)Forced conscription into the French armies to conquer the rest of Europe.

Napoleon Bonaparte incorporated revolutionary principles in administrative field in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.

 (i) The Civil Code of 1804, usually known as the Napoleonic Code, did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.

 (ii) Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
(iii)In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication system were improved.

 (iv) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.

 (v) Uniform laws, standardised weight and measures and a common national currency were introduced

OR

In 1903, the modern part of Hanoi was struck by bubonic plague.

(i) To stem this invasion, a rat hunt was started in 1902. The French hired Vietnam workers and paid them for each rat they caught. 

(ii) For the Vietnamese, the rat hunt provided an early lesson in the success of collective bargaining.

(iii) Those who did the dirty work of entering sewers began negotiating a higher bounty.

(iv) They also discovered innovative ways to profit from the situation. The bounty was paid when a tail was given as proof that a rat has been killed. So, the rat catchers took to just clipping the tails and releasing the rats so that the process could be repeated over and again.

(v) Some people, in fact, began raising rats to earn a bounty, these forced French to scrap the bounty programme.

D. Frederic Sorrieu

OR

D. Garnier

Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynasties as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire. The past revolutionary uprisings, which failed, prompted King Victor Emmanuel II from Sardinia-Piedmont to unify the Italian states through war.

(i) In 1859, Giuseppe Garibaldi headed a revolution against Austria in an alliance with France.

(ii) In 1860, the forces marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and drove out the Spanish rulers.

iii) In 1861, Victor Emanuel was proclaimed as the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.

                                                                    OR
The steps taken by the French to develop cultivation in the Mekong delta were:

(i) Build canals and draining lands to increase cultivation.

(ii) Used of forced labour to build canals and earthworks.

(iii) Increased rice production and allowed the export of rice.

B. Giuseppe Mazzini

OR

C. Bao Dai

Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative to nation- building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.

Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years- with Austria, Denmark and France- ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of German unification.

In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in ceremony held at Versailles

OR

The infrastructural projects developed by the French colonisers in Vietnam were:

(i) Building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta to increase cultivation.

(ii) The vast system of irrigation works-canal and earthworks to increase rice production.

(iii) Construction of trans-Indo-China rail network to link the northern and southern parts of China and Vietnam.

Non-cooperation movement slowed down in the cities for the following reasons:

(i) Khadi cloth was more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and people could not afford to buy it.

(ii) The boycott of British institutions posed a problem as there were no alternative Indian institutions to replace the British ones.

(iii) These were slow to come up, so the students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in courts.

Napoleon Bonaparte incorporated revolutionary principles in administrative field in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.

(i) The Civil Code of 1804- usually known as the Napoleonic Code- did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.

(ii) Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

(iii) In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication system were improved.

(iv) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.

(v) Uniform laws, standardised weight and measures and a common national currency were introduced

OR

The division of Vietnam set in motion a series of events that turned the country into a battlefield. In the peace negotiations in Geneva that followed the French defeat, the Vietnamese were persuaded to accept the division of the country. Ho Chi Minh and the communists took power in the north while Bao Dai’s regime was put in power in the south.

(i) The Bao Dai regime was soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem built a repressive and authoritarian government. Anyone who opposed him was called a communist and was jailed and killed.

(ii) Diem retained Ordinance 10, a French law that permitted Christianity but outlawed Buddhism. His dictatorial rule came to be opposed by a broad opposition united under the banner of the National Liberation Front (NLF).

(iii) With the help of the Ho Chi Minh government in the north, the NLF fought for the unification of the country.

(iv) The US was worried about communists gaining power, thus decided to intervene decisively, sending in troops and arms.

D. It abolished feudal system

OR

C. He took control of South Vietnam after Vietnam split.

The 1830s were years of great economic hardships in Europe.

(i) There were more seekers of job than employment.

(ii) Small producers in towns were often faced with tough competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England.

(iii) Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.

(iv) The rise of food prices or a bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

OR

Paul Bernard believed that the purpose of acquiring colonies was to make profits. According to him, if the economy was developed and the standard of living of the people improved, they would buy more goods. He identified several barriers to economic growth in Vietnam:

(i) High population levels

(ii) Low agricultural productivity, and

(iii) Extensive indebtedness among the peasants.

To reduce rural poverty and increase agricultural productivity it was necessary to carry out land reforms as the Japanese had done in the 1890s.

Victor Emmanuel II 

OR

It led by angry officers of the Imperial Court against French control and the spread of Christianity in Vietnam.

Although Napoleon destroyed democracy in France, he introduced some progressive reforms in the country to make the administrative system more rational and efficient. This was achieved by introducing and implementing the following measures:

i. He introduced the Civil Code or the Napoleonic Code which established equality before law and secured the right to property. The privileges based on birth were also abolished. This Code was also applied to all those territories which were conquered by Napoleon.

ii. He abolished the feudal system and liberated the peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

iii. In towns and cities, restrictions imposed on guilds were removed.

iv. Means of transport and communication were improved.

v. Weights and measures were standardised and a common national currency was introduced. This benefited trades, merchants and businessmen.

OR

The peace negotiations regarding Indo–China took place in Geneva in 1954 after the defeat of the French by the Vietnamese. The latter were forced to accept the division of the country which set in motion a series of events which turned Vietnam into a battle field. Vietnam was divided into North and South Vietnam. While Ho Chi Minh and communists occupied power in North Vietnam, Bao Dai’s regime occupied power in South Vietnam. The division of Vietnam into two blocks led by two different ideologies turned Vietnam into battlefields bringing death and destruction among its people. Later, Bao Dai’s regime was overthrown by Ngo Dinh Diem who was an autocrat. His dictatorial rule was opposed by the National Liberation Front who fought against Ngo Dinh Diem with the help of Ho Chin Minh. This incident was watched with suspicion by the USA, who did not want the spread of communism in the country. Later, the troops of USA entered Vietnam with an aim to contain communism. Vietnam was thus turned into a battlefield.

A prison where people are detained without due process of law.

From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.

i. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. 

ii. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. 

iii. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. 

iv. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated all in the name of one nation. 

v. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.

D.

Sardinia −Piedmont

A.

Autocratic

D.

Dictatorial

During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.

(i) For example,Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who founded two underground societies; first Young Italy in Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne..Following in the footsteps of Mazzini, many secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.

(ii) Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. The Romantics used folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances to popularize the true spirit of the nation. For eg; Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music in Poland. He turned folk dances; like polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

(iii) Language also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. For eg: It was mainly used as an instrument when Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere in Poland.
                                                            OR
An early movement against French control and spread of Christianity was the Scholars’ Revolt in 1868. This was led by officials at the imperial court angered by the spread of Catholicism and French power. There was an uprising in Ngu An and Ha Tien provinces where over a thousands catholics were killed. Catholic missionaries had been active in converting people to Christianity since the early seventeenth century, and by the middle of the eighteenth century had converted some 300,000. This had angered the people of these provinces and led to the uprising. Though this uprising was crushed by the French, it had inspired the people of other regions to rise against the French colonialism.

One such movement was the Hoa Hao. It began in 1939 and gained popularity in Mekong Delta area. It drew on religious ideas popular in anti-French uprisings of the nineteenth century. The founder of Hoa Hao was Huynh Phu So. He performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless expenditure, opposition to the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium had a wide appeal. The French tried to suppress the movement led by Huynh Phu So and declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze and put him in a mental asylum. These movements were against French control and spread of Christianity. They were anti-colonial. Thus these movements played an important role in arousing anti-colonial feelings in Vietnam.

B.

It recognised Greece as an independent nation.

Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynasties as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire.The past revolutionary uprisings, which failed, prompted King Victor Emmanuel II from Sardinia-Piedmont to unify the Italian states through war.

(i) In 1859, Giuseppe Garibaldi headed a revolution against Austria in an alliance with France.

(ii) In 1860, the forces marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and drove out the Spanish rulers.

(iii) In 1861, Victor Emanuel was proclaimed as the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.

OR

The steps taken by the French to develop cultivation in the Mekong delta were-

(i) build canals and draining lands to increase cultivation

(ii) used of forced labour to build canals and earthworks

(iii) increased rice production and allowed the export of rice

The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. They were-

(i) The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

(ii) A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.

(iii) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.

(iv) A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.

OR

The problems the French faced in the sphere of education in Vietnam were-

(i) How far the Vietnamese were to be educated was a question. The French needed an educated local labour force but they feared that education might create problems. The French citizens living in Vietnam began fearing that they might lose their jobs to the educated Vietnamese.

(ii) Another problem in the sphere of education was that the elites in Vietnam were powerfully influenced by Chinese culture. To consolidate their power, the French had to counter this Chinese influence.

(iii) So they systematically dismantled the traditional educational system and established French schools for the Vietnamese.

(iv) A deliberate policy of failing students was adopted, particularly in the final year, so that they could not qualify for the better-paid jobs.

The nationalist movement in Indo China

The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that created a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.

1. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

2. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.

3. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
OR

French's control over Vietnam affected all aspects of the life of the Vietnamese. The most visible impact was witnessed on the field of economy and defence. However, culture too was deeply impacted. The French established control over the education system of Vietnam to consolidate its control.

1. Economic- For French, colonies were necessary to provide natural resources and other goods. The Vietnamese economy was based on rice cultivation and rubber plantation to meet the French needs. Labours were hired on contracts, gradually landlordism became well entrenched and standard of living declined. To suit the French requirements for easy transportation of goods massive infrastructure projects, rail networks were established.
2. Religion- The French in order to consolidate its control and authority wanted to exercise cultural and social domination and influence. One such way was to introduce Christianity in Vietnam , establish Christian Missionaries and encourage conversions.
3. Education- The French in order to civilize the natives, introduced modern education and dismantled the traditional education system in Vietnam. They followed the policy of discrimination against the Vietnamese students, of deliberately failing students. The education system glorified French rule.

It can be said that culture, music, dance and religion played an important role in the

development of nationalism in Europe:

i. The role of culture was important in the sense that it instilled among the people of

Europe an idea of a shared heritage. The ultimate result of this was the development of nationalism. Art, poetry and music, all helped in expressing nationalist feelings among the people. Romanticism, in particular, was a cultural movement which contributed a great deal in this process. Romantic artists and poets criticised the glorification of reason and science and instead focused on emotions and intuition.

ii. Language also played an important role. After the Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian was imposed everywhere. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was later crushed. After this, many members of the Polish clergy began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.

iii. The Romantic German philosopher Herder said that true German culture was to be found among the common people – das volk. Folk songs, folk poetry and dances further popularised the idea of nation.