Understanding Society Chapter 3 Environment And Society

(b) Environment : It means geographic environment of human beings, i.e., temperature, water, land, air and everything surrounding them.

(c) Ecology : Study of relationship between living things (plant, animal and human beings and environment).

(b) Social Ecology : The inter-relationship of physical, biological and cultural features of a religion is the subject matter of social ecology. Social ecology is a study of relationships between communities and environment.

(c) Invasion and Succession : The incoming process of the rural people to the cities is called invasion and the process of occupation of urban region by replacing the original settlers in known as “succession”.

(a) The concept of ecosystem considers human beings, animals, plants and environment as parts of a single system called ecosystem.

(b) The human beings, animals and plants are living components, while the environment is inorganic or non-living component of this system. The ecosystem functions and exists due to interrelation of these components.

The environment has been destroyed by human beings for comfortable living. Destruction of plants, trees and forests, industrial pollution, automobile pollution, water pollution and noise pollution have degraded the balance in the ecosystem. In the modern industrial societies, exploitation of environment has become alarming. Any economic development seems directly related to destruction of nature.

These three models of city are related with three theories. These are :

(i) The concentric zone theory,

(ii) The sector theory, and

(iii) The multiple nuclei theory.

Magnet City : Those cities are called magnet cities which attract a large portion of rural people for better employment.

Other features of suburb :

1. Often urban people of affluent sections of societies try to live outside the central city. This area has larger open spaces and is quiet and peaceful. Also, it has access to economic and cultural opportunities of the city. Such an area is called a ‘suburb’.

2. ‘Suburb’ area is located within the metropolitan area. It has a low population density and a smaller population size.

1. In the rural areas, predominant source of livelihood is agriculture.

2. The village people depend on cultivation of their own land. Those who do not have sufficient, land work as labourers on others lands.

3. A very small section of village population engage themselves in the non-agricultural occupations.

2. In short, we can say that urban people get their livelihood from non-agriculture occupations, only a few engage themselves in agriculture related activities.

3. The majority of them are industrial workers or workers in different occupations in the organized or unorganized sector. Industrial, urban varietes of trade and commerce-related occupations are found in the cities.

1. Ogburn and Nimkoff define Social Ecology as a study of relationship between communities and environment.

2. Ecology is a special branch of biology. It is the study of relationship between living things (i.e., human beings, animals and plants) and their environment.

3. Environment means both biological and geographical conditions.

4. Since the time of Charles Darwin (1859) environment has been interpreted as the total web of life where both plants and animals are related with one another as well as with the physical features of a region. A meaning of ecology is 'adaptation to environment.'

5. The concept of ecology has naturally included the human beings as a part of the total web of life on the earth.

6. The inter-relationship of physical, biological and cultural features of a region is the concept or subject matter of Social Ecology : Sociology is, thus influenced by biology.

7. Human beings try to adapt themselves in the specific geographical and cultural environment on the one hand, and also make effort to control the environment according to their needs, on the other.

8. People try to learn to live comfartably under different ecological situations of cold and hot climate or on hills or plains or at the sea shore, in forests or plain in desert of heavy rains, valley regions. This constant process of adjustment to the environment started along with influence of human beings on the earth and this led to their cultural development.

9. Social ecology is concerned with both rural and urban societies in respect of their adjustment to the environment.

On the other hand, with the help of modern technology, the human beings have controlled nature for comfortable living on the earth.

Therefore, human beings are in the constant process of adjustment to the environmental conditions. This constant process of adjustment to the environment began alongwith their emergence on the earth and this led to their cultural development.

Human beings invent several ways by which relationships develop between their requirements and nature and environment. Alongwith the improvement in technology, the relationship with the nature and environment improves. Gradually human beings become less dependent on the environment. Moreover, changes in technology also bring changes in their social life. Again, technology is the means by which adaptation to the environment takes place.

1. The four aspects of human ecology are : (i) population, (ii) environment, (iii) technology and (iv) social organisation.

(i) The biological mak-up of societies population needs water, food and air for survival.

(ii) Societies live in different environment. The geographic environment is exploited for food, water and shelter.

(iii) Both population and environment establish certain relationships. These relationships are achieved through the development of technology. Human beings invent several ways by which relationships develop between their requirements and environment. Along with the improvement in technology, the relantionship with the environment improves. Gradually human beings becomes less dependent on the environment.

(iv) There are many social organisation, which are part and parcel of human ecology. Changes in population, environment and technology affect the social environment. For example changes in technology bring changes in social life. Again, technology is the means by which adaptation to the environment takes place.

(ii) Mountains and rivers, fauna that they support, are a part of ecology.

(iii) The ecology of a place is also affected by the interaction between its geography and hydrology. For example, the plant and animal life unique to a desert is adapted to its scare rainfall, rocky or sandy soils, and extreme temperatures.

(iv) Similar ecological factors limit and shape how human beings can live in any particular place.

1. Over time, however, ecology has been modified by human actions. What appears to be a natural feature of the environment — aridity or flood-proneness, for example, is often produced by human intervention. Deforestation in the upper catchment of a river may make the river more flood-prone.

2. Climate change brought about by global warming is another instance of the widespread impact of human activity on nature. Over time, it is often difficult to separate and distinguish between the natural and human factors in ecological change.

3. Alongside biophysical properties and processes that may have been transformed by human action — for example, the flow of a river and the species composition of a forest, there are other ecological elements around us that are more obviously human-made.

4. An agricultural farm with its soil and water conservation works, its cultivated plants and domesticated animals, its inputs of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides, is clearly a human transformation of nature.

5. The built environment of a city, made from concrete, cement, brick, stone, glass and tar, uses natural resources but is very much a human artefact.

1. Social environments emerge from the interaction between biophysical ecology and human interventions. This is a two-way process. Just as nature shapes society, society shapes nature.

2. Example : For instance, the fertile soil of the Indo-Gangetic floodplain enables intensive

agriculture. Its high productivity allows dense population settlements and generates enough surpluses to support other, non-agricultural activities, giving rise to complex hierarchical societies and states.

3. Another Example : In contrast, the desert of Rajasthan can only support pastoralists who move from place to place in order to keep their livestock supplied with fodder.

4. These are instances of ecology shaping the forms of human life and culture. On the other hand, the social organisation of capitalism has shaped nature across the world.

5. The private automobile is one instance of a capitalism commodity that has transformed lives and landscapes. Air pollution and congestion in cities, regional conflicts and wars over oil, and global warming are just a few of the environmental effect of cars. Human interventions increasingly have the poor to alter environments, often permanently.

1. The interaction between environment and society is shaped by social organisation. Property relations determine how and by whom natural resources can be used. For instance, if forests are owned by the government, it wil have the power to decide whether it should lease them to timber companies or allow villagers to collect forest produce.

2. Private ownership of land and water sources will affect whether others can have access to these resources and on what terms and conditions.

3. Ownership and control over resources is also related to the division of labour in the production process.

4. Landless labourers and women will have a different relationship with natural resources than men.

5. In rural India, women are likely to experience resource scarcity more acutely because gathering fuel and fetching water are generally women's tasks but they do not control these resources. Social organisation influences how different social groups relate to their environment.

1. It is correct to say that environmental management is very complex and difficult task for society. It is not enough known about biophysical processes to predict and control them. In addition, human relations with the environment have become increasingly complex.

2. With the spread of industrialisation, resource extraction has expanded and accelerated, affecting ecosystems in unprecendented ways. Complex industrial technologies and modes of organisation require sophisticated managenment systems which are often fragile and vulnerable to error.

3. We live in risk societies using technologies and products that we do not fully grasp. The occurrence of nuclear disasters like Chernobyl industrial accidents like Bhopal, and Mad Cow disesase in Europe shows the dangers inherent in industrial environments.

(i) Air Pollution : Air pollution is considered to be a major environmental problem in urban and rural areas, causing respiratory and other problems which result in serious illness and death. The Sources of air pollution include emissions from industries and vehicles, as well as the burning of wood and coal for domestic use.

Sources or Causes : We have all heard of pollution from vehicles and factories, and seen pictures of smoking chimneys and exhaust pipes in cars. But we often don't realise that indoor pollution from cooking fires is also a serious source of risk. This is particularly true rural homes where wood fires using green or poorly burning wood, badly designed fireplaces (chulhas), and poor ventilation combine to put village women at serious risk because they do the cooking.

(ii) Water Pollution : Water pollution is also a very serious issue affecting surface as well as groundwater. Major sources include not only domestic sewage and factory effluents but also the run-off from farms where large amount of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides are used. The pollution of rivers and water bodies is a particularly important problem.

(iv) Noise Pollution : Cities also suffer from noise pollution, which has been the subject of court orders in many cities. Sources include amplified loud speakers used at religious and cultural events, political campaigns, vehicle horns and traffic, and construction work.

2. Different social groups stand in different relationships to the environment and approach it differently. A Forest Department geared to maximising revenues from supplying large volumes of bamboo to the paper industry will and use a forest very differently from an artsean who harvests bamboo to make baskets. Their varied interests and ideologies generate environment crises have their roots in social inequality.

3. Addressing environmental problems requires changing environment-society relations, and this is turn requires efforts to change relations between different social groups — men and women, urban and rural people, landlords and labourers.

4. Changed social relations will give rise to different knowledge systems and modes of managing the environment.

(i) Distribution of river water between Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan : This is a burning problem due to shortage of water, low level of groundwater, non availability of pure drinking water to all people and due to over irrigation or under irrigation. The problem of wastage of useful land or regular supply of water to agricultural land or to provide water to big dams for production of hydro-electricity. Every state wants to increase the total forests covered land but due to shortage of water this can't be done according to set norms of United Nations.

(ii) Narmada Bachaw : Some NGO5 are fighting for the right of the people of those areas and villages who have been removed from their native villages and agricultural land has been snatched by the concerned authority of Narmada Project. Definately the project will be very useful for Gujarat and some other states. But problem of rehabitation of uprooted people of villages and to provide them proper employment is a serious and great problem.

1. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, industrial cities developed along with the process of industrialization. The increased agricultural production made it possible to supply food to large population living in the cities which developed a vast range of industrial and urban occupations.

2. Family-based pre-industrial economic units were transformed into large factories due to advancement of technology.

3. Public health facilities were greatly improved in urban areas. Drainage and sewage disposal system improved. All this also decreased the death rate in cities. Organisation of police force and fire-fighters made the city life safer.

4. In India, more and more people are coming to live in the cities in search of jobs and better life facilities. Though the available jobs in cities are in short supply. The cities are not having adequate housing, electricity, sanitation, transport medical facilities and social services.

5. Outskirts of cities are inhabited by over-stricken people who have migrated from rural areas. Quite of ten they live in make-shift houses and unplanned residential areas. Their houses are made of scrap metal and pieces of woods. There are slums where people live in high concentration. Due to absence of sanitation, rates of illness and death among this population is very high.

(a) In industrial societies, there are central cities used for business, entertaintment and residence. There are city suburbs situated just outside the boundaries of the city. These are used for residence, business and entertaintment. The neighbouring small towns and rural areas are connected with the central city in different ways.

(b) The central city, its suburbs, neighbouring towns and rural regions, are socially and economically linked together. This is called ‘metropolis’.

(c) When urban communities expand outside the city centure, these bring the neighbouring towns and rural areas under the fold of social and economic network. Thus, metropolitan growth takes place. This growth generally reduces the distinctions among the central city, suburbs, small towns and rural areas. The growth of urban areas, somtimes, connects cities which are located close to each other.

1. There are different types of societies. These are hunting and food-gathering societies, pastoral societies, agricultural soceities and urban-industrial societies. Each of these societies has a distinct set of relationships to the physical environment according to their technological development.

2. Many of the tribal societies in India are hunters and food-gatherers. They are Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh, Kadars of Kerala, Kodakus of Chhatisgarh, Birhors of Jharkhand and Onges of Little Andaman.

3. The hunting and food-gatherig tribal societies have the knowledge about the use of the wild animals and environment. Where animals and plants are not available in the region, they need to lead a nomadic life. They collect fruits, leaves and timbers from forests.

4. Now the tribal peoples have come to have developed technology for this purpose. Hunting skills, hunting weapons, animal processig for food, shelter and clothing are also develped.

5. Factors such as famine, disease, malnutrition and scarity of food are the causes for high fertility and mortality rate among them.

6. Division of labour is mainly limited to males and females. Males specialize mainly in hunting and fighting with the enemies while females used to do domestic work like rearing up the children and cooking food, etc.

1. Agricultural communities settle down permanently in villages for cultivation throughout the year.

2. Valleys and fertile regions have been chosen for cultivation. This stage set the tone for further technological advancement. The development of crafts, arts and various cottage industries are the products of such technological advancement.

3. Family of the agriculturalists now has become the most singnificant agency for sociolisation of children. Members of the family learn farming, folkways and many customs from the community.

4. Use of animal power also starts. Boat-making, cart-making and then house-construction develop.

5. Rural communities with new technologies control the environment. Depenedence on environment gradually decreases. Still floods, droughts, famines, earthquakes and many other natural calamities bring hazards in their life.

6. Religion and rituals have developed to produce them from these environmental hazards and to ensure better agricultural production. Gradually, scripts, language and other symbols develop in the society.

1. The core of the metropolitan area is known as central city.

2. It is always large with high population density.

3. Its culture is different. Culturally, it differ from small towns and rural areas.

4. Generally the best educated, wealthiest citizens and the most skilled people leave the central city and go to live in suburbs.

5. So, those who remain behind in the central city are accorded a lower social standing.

1. Cities have much bigger size and have vast population. The density of population in cities is very high.

2. Hetrogeneity is the hallmark of cities. However, population of urban areas are highly differentiated into a number of castes, communities, classes, linguistic groups, religious groups and occupational groups.

3. In urban regions, people are predominantly engaged in non-agriculture occupations such as the jobs of officers and clerks in the government and non-government organisations, managers and workers in the factories and in many professions.

1. Urban community means the human being living in the environment of the urban areas. While on the other hand a the meaning of rural community is the people living in evironment of the rural areas.

2. Ecology influences the urban communities greatly. When city is formed and grows clustering of people, their activities are concentrated in a particular area. Gradually the central city area becomes highly populated. Movement of people from the central areas to the suburb is noticed.

Cities located near a river or sea grow faster because of easy transportation and commercial activities. In other geographical areas city grow very slowly because of non-availiability of transportation. In rural areas the number of the people increases very slowly. The people face the problem of transportation and advanced commercial activities.

3. There are different types of societies in the rural areas. These are hunting and food-gathering societies, pastoral societies, agricultural societies in rural areas while in urban areas we find urban-industrial societies. Each of these societies has a distinct set of relationship to the physical environment according to their technological development.

4. Behaviours of urban communities vary from one another. A large scale immigration from neighbouring rural areas to the urban centres take place. This process replaces the earlier settlers by the waves of immigrants.

5. The hunting and food-gathering tribal societies have the knowledge about the use of the wild animals and plants available in their neighbouring environment. Where animals and plants (grassy fields) are not available in the region, they have to lead a nomadic life. They collect fruits, leaves and timbers from forests. Now they have come to have developed technology for this purpose.

6. Hunting skills, hunting weapons, animal processing for food, shelter and clothing are also developed. Factors such as diseases, famine, malnutrition and scarcity of food are the causes for high fertility and morality rate among them.

7. Division of labour in tribal rural communities is mainly limited to males and females. Males specialize mainly in hunting and fighting with the enemies while females use to do domestic work like rearing-up the children and cooking food, etc.

8. Domestication of animals is the principal economy of pastoral communities. Nomadic or semi-nomadic habits are a characteristics feature of their day-to-day life.

9. Agricultural societies settle down permanently in villages for cultivation throughout the year.

10. The development of crafts, arts and different cottage and small scale industries are the products of technological advancements in rural area.

11. During the past three centuries, urban-industrial societies have grown up from the agricultural societies. People from rural-areas have moved to the cities. The early cities have brought some modification in the social system and in the person-to-person relations.

12. The urban societies differ from other societies in respect of population, environment, technology and social organisation. The econony of urban societies is based on trade commerce, work in factories and offices.

13. The rapid growth of population in cities has created pressure on environment. The byproduct of industries and automobiles in the cities releases gases increasing carbondioxide and decreasing oxygen in the environment.

1. Using up non-renewable natural resources is one of the most serious environmental problems. While fossil fuel and specially

petroleum hog the headlines, the depletion and destruction of water and land is probably even more rapid. The rapid decline in groundwater levels in an acute problem all over India, especially in the states of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

2. Aquifers which have accumulated water over hundreds and thousands of years are being emptied in a period of a few decades to meet the growing demands of intensive agriculture, industry and urban centres.

3. Rivers have also been dammed and diverted, causing irreversible damage to the ecology of water basins. Many water bodies in urban areas have been filled up and built upon, destroying the natural drainage of the landscape. Like groundwater, topsoil too is created over thousands of years. This agricultural resource, too, is being destroyed due to poor environmental management leading to erosion, water-logging and salinisation.

4. The production of bricks for building houses is another reason for the loss of topsoil.

5. Biodiversity habitats such as forests, grasslands and wetlands are the other major resources facing rapid depletion, largely due to the expansion of areas under agriculture. Though various parts of the globe, including some parts of India, appear to hava seen some re-forestation or increase in vegetative cover in recent decades, the overall trend is towards the loss of biodiversity.

6. The shrinking of these habitats has endangered many species, several of them unique to India. You may have read of the recent crisis when it was discovered that the tiger population had fallen sharply despite strict laws and large sanctuaries.

2. How environmetal problems affect different groups is a function of social inequality. Social status and power determine the extent to which people can insulate themselves from environmntal crises or overcome it. In some cases, their ‘solutions’ may actually worsen environmental disparities.

3. In Kutch, Gujarat, where water is scarce, richer farmers have invested in deep bore tubewells to tap groundwater to irrigate their fields and grow cash crops. When the rain fails, the earthen wells of the poor villagers run dry and they do not even have water to drink. At such time, the moist green fields of the rich farmers seem to mock them.

4. Certain environmental concerns sometimes appear to be universal concerns, not particular to specific social groups. For instance, reducing air pollution or protecting biodiversity seem to be in the public interests.

5. A sociological analysis shows, however, that how public priorities are set and how they are pursued may not be universally beneficial. Securing the public interest may actually serve the interests of particular politically and economically powerful groups, or hurt the interests of the poor and politically weak. As the debates over large dams and around protected area show the environment as a public interest is a hotly contested arena.

Theories of Models of the City :

(i) The Concentric Zone Theory :

(a) According to Park and Burges (1925) the city is a series of circles. Each circle differs in the way land is used.

(b) The central business district of the city is used for commerce, business, banking, government, shopping and entertainment. Here the land price is very high and so also is the rent.

(c) The next circle of the city of ‘wholesale light manufacturing’, outside this area is the

‘low-class residential’, This area is inhabited by the poor and backward

Concrete Zone Theory

KEY DISTRICT

1. Central Business District.

2. Wholesale Light Manufacturing.

3. Low-Class Residential.

4. Medium-Class Residential.

5. High-Class Residential.

6. Heavy Manufacturing.

7. Outlying Business District.

8. Residential Suburb.

9. Industrial Suburb.

10. Commuters Zones.

(d) The next zone is “medium-class residential” area. This area is inhabited by the blue-collar worker.

(e) Outside the above, this circle (i.e, medium-class residential area) is the “high-class residential area.” It is the zone of middle-class people. Apartments as private dwellings are here. These are with high rents.

(f) The Commuters' Zone is located at the furthermost area from the central business district. This area lies on the outer periphery of the city. It is the area of much recent population growth.

Conclusion: Concentric Zone theory of the model of the city is developed from the study of Chicago (USA) city. This theory may not be applicable to Indian cities.

(ii) The Sector Theory :

(a) The second form of a model of the city is sector model. It views the large city as a number of sectors rather than concentric zones.

(b) The sectors are products of the growth pattern of cities.

(c) Transportation path in the urban area, the pattern of land use along water-ways, railroad lines and highways are laid out.

(d) Industry generally develops along the transportation routes. The sector models of San Francisco city of U.S.A. and Chandigarh city of India seem to have been designed on the basis of Hoyt’s (1939) sector model.

(e) Hoyt’s theory is broadly based on a study of residential characteristics and rental values. He says that population tends to move along well-defined axes of transportation as the city grows. The higher income group moves fast than the lower income group.

(iii) The Multiple Nuclei Theory :

(a) The third ecological model of the city is the multiple nuclei theory. Here, the cities have different centres. Thus, the land use pattern and rents are influenced by this ecological process.

(b) In the process of development, the first nucleus of a city is developed around a port or mine, then the other nuclei develop.

 Sector Theory

(c) These nuclei develop due to various kinds of activities in the city. Mumbai is a city of this type.

(d) Harris and Ulman (1946) suggest that the land use patterns of some cities are developed around some district nuclei but not in a single centre.

: Multiple Nuclei

(e) The nuclei are districts having various functions having particular relations to the nature of existing terrain and communication.

II. Distinction : 1. The most common distinctions between village and city are population density and its size. In a city a large number of people live and work in close proximity. By contrast rural areas have low population density. Villagers are small in size and have small population. Cities have much bigger size and have vast population. Density of population is low in villages, but density of population in cities is very high.

2 Homogenious/Hetro-geneity : Villages are homogenous, whereas hetro-geneity is the hallm ark of cities. In the village, people are more differentiated into caste and religion and less into class. However people of cities are highly differentiated into a number of castes, communities, classes, linguistic groups, religious groups and occupational groups.

3. In villages, people belonging to one linguistic group live together. Whereas in the cities, different linguistic groups are found.

4. In the villages, main source of direct or indirect income is agriculture, whereas in cities, people are predominantly engaged in non-agricultural occupations such as the jobs of officers and clerks in the government and nongovernment organisations, managers and workers in factories and in many professions.

5. Availability of Land : In village, people depend on cultivation of their own land. Those who do not have sufficient land, work as labourers on other's lands. A very small section of village population engage themselves in the non-agricultural occupation. On the other hand, people in the cities follow non-agricultire occupations. Only a few engage themselves in agriculture-related activities. The majority of them are industrial workers or workers in various occupations in the organized or unorganized sector. Industrial, urban varieties of trade and commerce-related occupations are found in the cities.

6. Rigidity in the caste system is far less in the cities, as compared to villages.

7. Frequent and intense inter-community relations are found in the cities while it is less pronounced or absent in the villages.

8. In the cities, people are individualistic in their disposition with formal and impersonal relations. While people in the villages are connected with each other through informal and personal relationships.

9. Social obligations are more in the villages than in the cities.

10. In urban areas, people are found performing varieties of roles; therefore, network of social relationships is characterized by anonymity.

11. Social mobility in cities is very high whereas, in the villages it is comparatively low. Occupational, educational and class mobility are in greater abundance in cities than in villages.

12. Further, ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors work behind continuous and large scale migration of village people to the cities. But hardly any individual is found migrating to villages from cities.

(a) In studies of sociology, it was realized by the scholars that there was a clear contrast between rural and urban societies. Several sociologists at a later stage began suggesting that a simple rural-urban dichotomy of population is not sufficient. Gradually, it has become clear that dichotomy is not sufficient and also simplistic. There are gradations of rural and urban regions.

(b) Robert Redfield has made a significant contribution to develop the concept of folk, rural, and urban continuum. He has constructed a continuum from small rural villages to large cities. More urban means that population is more secular, more individualistic and with a greater division of labour.

(c) The concept of a rural-urban continuum is interpreted in more easy way, as continuity in the folk, the rural and the urban social organisation.

(d) The rapid process of urbanization, establishment of new technologically developed industries in rural areas (near to the urban centres) have exercised a great influence on villge life.

(e) The spread of modern industrial traits has decreased greatly the differences between rural life and urban life. So, a clear line of contrast between the two is not seen.

(f) In this way, invisible village and city cultural boundaries have made it difficult to draw a line of distinction. Hence the marginal areas show amalgamation and continuation of cultural traits of both the societies.

(g) In our country (i.e., India), during about last thirty five years the development of transport and road communication has connected the remote tribal areas, villages and urban centres quickly within a very short period of time.

(h) New occupations had modern educational institutions have attracted the people of rural regions. In this way, rural to urban migration has taken place.

(i) This process (migration) reduces the separation between tribal areas of India and its cities and villages. The distant tribal areas show traits of urbanism, tribal and rural culture.

(j) Due to migration from tribal-rural areas to urban areas, cities may exhibit combination and amalgamation of such cultural traits.

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