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2. Social categories are quite frequently and regularly employed in sociological research. For example if we are keen in caste relations in India, we might require to analyse difference in average earning between lower castes and upper castes considering them as two distinct statistical categories.
1. Primary and Secondary Groups.
2. In-Group and Out-Groups
3. Formal and Informal Groups.
1. Association : Primary group members have face to face association.
2. Unspecialized : The primary groups show the unspecialized character of association.
3. Permanent : Primary groups are relatively permanent in nature.
4. Small : Primary groups are generally small in size. Limited size and limited membership is its main feature.
5. Closeness: There is always (or generally) intimacy is felt among the members of primary groups.
2. Definition: As Cooley puts it, 'By primary groups I mean those characterized by intimate face to face association and cooperation. They are primary in many senses, but mainly in that they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the nature. The result of the intimate association, psychologically, is certain fusion of individuality in a common hold.'
3. Primary groups are generally small in size. The members of such groups are intimate. For example the members of a family are generally intimate. In the same way in peer groups the individuals have direct contact.
4. Members of the primary group interact and have concern for each other.
5. Charles H. Cooley believes that membership in primary group is the essential link between the individual and society. It is these links that create the co-operation that characterize society.
6. In pre-industrial societies, almost all social life took place in the context of primary groups such as Kinship network as in some village groups in our country.
2. The relationship among the members of club, professional group, political party or trade unions come under the category of secondary groups.
3. The relationships of the members of the secondary groups are based on mutual interest. The basis of these relationships are located in utility or common interests.
4. A secondary group is a number of people who meet regularly, but whose relationships are mainly impersonal, individuals in secondary group do not have intimate contact with each other and normally come together for specific practical pruposes only.
5. Example : A club or a committee (Group Housing Committee or such other one) is a suitable example of secondary group.
I think the modes of social control in different sphere society are not same but different:
(i) For a functionalist perspective social control refers to (a) the use of force to regulate the behaviour of the force to regulate the behaviour of the individual and groups and also refers to the (b) enforcing of values and patterns for maintain of order in society. Social control here is directed to restrain deviant behaviour of individuals or groups on the one hand, and on the other, to mitigate tensions and conflicts among individuals and groups to maintain social order and social cohesion. In this way social control is seen as necessary to stability in societys
(ii) Social control as a impose mechanism : According to scholars conflict theorists generally wood like to see social control more as a mechanism to impose the social control of dominant social classes on the remaining people of society.
They say stability of the society would be seen at the writ of once section over other section of the society.
In such situation of low or act would be the seen as the formal writ of the powerful and these interest (selfs) on society.
(iii) Social control to check behaviour : These is opinion some people that social control refers that social powers, techniques and stregies by which the behaviour of a group or any individual is controlled or regulated. It refers both to the use of forced (power) to regulate the behaviour of the individual and the groups.
This theory also refers to the enforcing of some values and patterns for maintaining order in society.
(iv) Formal or Informal types of social control social may be informal or formal. When the codified, systematic and other formal mechanism of control is used, it is known as formal social control. These are agencies and mechanism of formal social control, for example, law and state. In a modern society formal mechanisms and agencies of social control are emphasised.
In every society there is another type of social control that is known as informal social control.lt is personal, un official and uncodified. They include smiles, making faces, body language frowns, criticism, ridicule, language etc. These can be great variations in their use within the same society. In day to day life they are quite effective.
I play the role of father in my family. I earn for myself and for all members of my family. I am a citizen of India. I performed my several duty as a citizen of my country. I obey law and order. I pay all taxes honestly. I respect my national flag and symbol. In society different people play different role in different capacity and they hold different status.
A status is simply position in society or in group. Every society and every group has many different position for different individual of society or groups. For example in a family there is father, there is mother, there are domestic helps and servants. It must be keep in mind that each individual in a modern complex society such as our occupies.
Many different types of status during the course of his/her life. For example you as a school student may be a student to your teacher, a customer to your grocer, passenger to the bus driver, a brother or sister to your sibling, a patient to the doctor. Needless to say we could keep adding to the list.
To smaller and simpler the society, the fever the kinds of status that an individual can have.
In a modern society and individual occupies multiple status, Sociologist term this multiple status as status set.
Individual acquire different status at different stages of life. For example with the passage of time, a young son becomes later on father, father becomes a grand father and then great grand father. This is called status sequence for it refers to the status, which is attained in succession or sequence at the various stages of life.
1. Formal controls include all the legislation and enactments practiced at various levels such as village, district, state and national level from to time.
2. Due to limitations and weaknesses of informal social control mechanisms, several organisations and positions specialising in the process of social control have been created in modern societies.
3. Formal control is ‘official’ and generally involves big organisations such as police departments.
4. The agents of formal organisations and rules enforce conformity. Police departments and other law - enforcement agencies, mental hospitals and prisons, etc. are organisations of this type, enforcing rules that have been written into law.
5. Members of social control agencies make up sizeable portion of the labour force and include police officers, judges, lawyers, prison employees, tax collectors, legislators, social workers, ministers, doctors and other officials in government regulatory agencies. All of them exert social control as a part o their duties.
5. These groups may follow order from their senior officers or leaders.
(b) The Informal Group
1. A Group without formally stated group rules, goals or leaders is called informal group.
2. It is a typically small; and often; casually and spontaneously formed.
3. Interaction is based on common interests and intimate conduct.
4. Informal groups may or may not have strong group norms, and adherence to group norms rest on personal loyalty— rather than or explicit group rules.
5. Children's play group and gangs, as well as cliques (which might be formed within a formal organization), are examples of informal groups.
Social control is undertaken in two ways. It happens either by the use of force or by institutions through norms, values and inherent in different social institutions which slowly acceptable to the people.
The term ‘social control, is usually used by sociologists to refer to the second type of regulations in which the appeal to values and norms reduces or mitigates tensions and conflicts among individuals and between groups.
Edward A. Ross initially used the concept of social control for maintaining order in society.
However, his use of the term was rather vague. Yet, one gathers that he was chiefly concerned with those regulative institutions that insure individual behaviour in conformity with group demands.
Edward A. Ross showed the significant role that belief in the supernatural ceremonies, public opinion, morals, art, education, law and related phenomena play in maintaining the noramative structure of society.
1. Social control works in society either by the use of force or by institutions through norms, values and inherent in different social institutions.
2. Our behaviour in the day-to-day life is quite orderly and disciplined. We walk and drive on the left side of the road, we obey and respect our parents and other elderly people. We pay taxes to the government and whenever needed we stand in queue. In this way, we consciously or unconsciously follow the norms and values of the society which we belong.
3. There are some people who are said to be deviant in society, they smoke in public places and consume liquor. They use filthy language in their conversation and display indecent mannerism. Such people generally become victims of criticisms and condemnations.
4. There are measures of social control. Society exercises its control through state, educational institutions, civic bodies and a variety of other institutions. It is our belief that society cannot function smoothly and properly without suitable exercise of social control.
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1. Rules : Several type of rules such as road and transport rules control the behaviour of an individual or of a group. Rules check our behaviour in the day-to-day life and maintain law and order as well as discipline in schools, colleges and on roads etc.
2. Criticisms and condemnations : The deviant people of the society break rules and
laws. They smoke in public places and consume liquor. They use filthy language in their conversation and display indecent mannerism. Such person generally become victims of criticisms and condemnations . These are means of social control.
3. State, educational institutions (such as schools, colleges) civic bodies (i.e. Panchayats, muncipalities and corporation etc.) and a variety of other institutions (such as family, clan, caste, kin, state, religion, economy organisation etc.) are means of social control.
4. Press and other mens media (Radio, T.V., films, computers, internets etc.) are also means of social control.
Example : 1. Edward A. Ross initially used the term of social control for maintaining order in society. However his use of the concept was rather vague. Yet, one gathers that he was chiefly concerned with those regulative institutions that insure individual behaviour in conformity with group demands.
2. William G. Sumner attempted in his well-known book.
Folkways (1906) a somewhat similar task (as it was referred by E.A. Ross). In the sub title of his book, A study of the sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs and Morals, he (Sumner) indicates that norms serve to insure individual conformity.
(i) Every subject or discipline must develop its terminology. However, terminology is possibly even more important for sociology, just because its subject matter is famili and just because words do exist to denote it. We are so well acquainted with the social institutions that surrounded us that we cannot see them clearly and precisely.
Example : For instance we may feel that since we live in famili we know all about families. This would be conflating or equating sociological knowledge with common sense knowledge or naturalistic explanation.
(ii) Sociology as a subject or discipline has a history. We know that certain material and intelletual developments shaped the sociological perspective as well as its concerns. Likewise sociological concepts too have a story to tell.
(iii) Many of the concepts reflect the concern of social thinkers to understand and map the social changes that the shift from pre—modern to modern entailed.
Example : For instance sociologists observed that simple small scale and traditional societies were more marked by close, often face-to-face interaction.And modern,large scale societies by formal interaction. They therefore distinguish primary (groups) from secondary groups, community from society or association.
(iv) Some concepts like stratification reflect the concern that sociologists had in understanding the structured inequalities between groups in society. Concepts arise in society.
(v) However just as there are different types of individuals and groups in society so there are different types of concepts and ideal. And sociology itself is marked by different ways of understanding society and looking at dramatic social charges that the modern period brought about. Even in the early stage of sociology's emergence there were contrary and contesting understandings of society it for Karl Marx class and conflict were key concepts to understand society, social solidarity and collective conscience were key terms for Emile Durkle.
(i) Persistent interaction to provide continuity.
(ii) A stable pattern of these interactions.
(iii) A tense of belonging to identify with other members, i.e., each individual is conscious of the group itself and its own set of rules, rituals and symbols.
(iv) Shared interest.
(v) Acceptance of common norms and values.
(vi) A definite structure.
II. Interaction between individuals or groups : Social structure here refers to pattern of regular and repetitive interaction between individuals or groups.
As I am a member of society. I have to ineract with members of my family, people of my age group, people of my profession and so on.
A social group refers to a collection of continuously interacting persons who share common interest, culture, values and norms within a given society.
Different sociologists and social anthropolo gists have categorised groups into different types.
(i) Primary and secondary social groups : The groups to which we belong are not all of equal importance to us. Some groups tend to influence many aspects of our lives and bring us into personal association with others.
The term primary group is used to refer to a small group of people connected by intimate and face-to-face association and co-operation.
The members of primary groups have a sense of belonging. Family, village and groups of friends are examples of primary groups.
Secondary groups are relatively large in size, maintain formal and impersonal relationships. Schools, government offices, hospitals students, association etc. are examples of secondary groups.
2. Community and society or Association : The term community refers to human relationships that are highly personal, intimate and enduring, those where a person's involvement is considerable if not total, as in the family, with real friends or a close—Knit group.
Society or ‘association’ refers to everything opposite of community, in particular the apparently impersonal, superficial and transitory relationships of modern urban life.
Commerce and industry require a more calculating, rational and self interesting approach to one's dealings with others. We make contracts or agreements rather than getting to know one another.
(iii) In-Groups and Out-Groups: A sense of belonging marks an in group. This feeling separates ‘us’ or ‘we’ from ‘them’ or ‘they’ children belonging to a particular school may from an ‘in-group’ as against those who do not belong to the school.
An out-group on the other hand is one to which the members of an in-group do not belong. The members of an out-group can face hostile reactions from the members of the in-group. Migrants are ofter considered as an out-group. However, even there here the actual definition of who belongs and who does not, changes with time and social contexts.
(iv) Peer Groups: This is a kind of primary group, usually formed between individuals who are either of similar age or who are in a common prafessional group. Peer pressure refers to the social pressure exerted by one's peers on what one ought to do or not.
(v) Reference Group : For any group of people these are always other groups whom they look up to and aspire to be like. The groups whose life styles are emulated are known as reference groups. We do not belong to our reference groups but we do identify ourselves with that group. Reference groups are important sources of information about culture, lifestyle, aspiration and goal attainments.
(i) This system refers to the existence of structure of inequality between different group of the society. These inequalities depends on the access of the people to material or symbolic rewards.
(ii) Society can be seen as consisting of strata in a hierachy, with the more favour at the top and the less privileged near the bottom (layer) of the society.
(iii) Caste system, class formation, economic official and political status, role assigned by the society play vital role in social stratification.
II. Individual lives affected by stratification : Every aspect of the life of every individual and house hold is affected by stratification.
(i) Opportunities for help, longavity, security, educational success, fulfillment in work and political influence are all unequally distributed in systematic system ways.In India society is caste dominated.
(ii) In a caste stratification system and individuals position totally depends on the status attributes ascribed by birth rather than an any which are achieved during the course of once life.
(iii) This is not to say that in a class society there is no systematic constraint an achievement impose by status attributes such as race and gender.
(iv) However it is accepted that status contributes decided by birth in a particular caste society define an individual social position more completely than they do have in class based society.
(v) It is a hard fact that now a days the caste system in our country has undergone considerable changes our the year. Due to constitutional provision industrialisation, Urbanisation, spread of modern education, new means of transport and communication have affected by caste system.
(vi) The working of democracy has affected the caste system. Castes and interest group have gained strength. We also see that Dalits are certain there democratic right in society.
(vii) The funtionalist theory of social stratification bigins from the general presupposition or belief of funtionalism that no society is classless or unstratified.
(viii) The main functional necessity explains the universal presence and social stratification in requirement faced by a society of placing and motivating individuals in the social structure.
(ix) Social inequality or stratification is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions are deliberately filled by the most qualified persons.
III. Status and role also affect the individual lines :
(i) A status is simply position in society or in a group.
(ii) Every society and every group has many such position and every individual occupies many such position.
(iii) Status thus refers to the social position with defined rights and duties assigned to these positions. The illustrate, the mother occupies a status which have many norms of conduct as well as certain responsibility and prerogotives.
(iv) A role is that dynamic or the behavioural aspact of status. Status is occupied, but roles are played.We may say that a status is an institutionalised role. It is role that has become regularised, standardised and formalised in the society at large or in any of the specific association of society. It must be apparent that each individual in a modern, complex society such as ours occupies may different kinds of status during the course of his/he life.
We know very well that all groups are not alike. Everyone of us can see differences among various groups based on size, proximity, complexity, membership, goal and means.
1. Size: Some groups are small while others are large. For example, a family is generally a small group in size, while political party may be very big i.e. membership.
2. Other Major Criteria : Groups may be divided into primary, secondary, in-groups, out-groups, membership, non-membership, formal informal, etc.
3. Relationship : On the basis of individual's orientation in relation to a group, the concept of reference - group has also taken shape in sociology.
4. Intimate Groups : These groups are always large in size.
5. Impersonal Groups : These groups are always large in size.
6. Primary Group: These are always small in size. It refers to small associations of people connected by ties of emotional feelings.
7. Secondary Group : Impersonal, formal and indirect relations prevail among the members of this type of group.
8. In - Group: These groups are ‘we groups: For any individual ‘In-group’ is the group to which he belongs. The groups with which the individual indentifies himself are his in-groups: family, tribe, sex, college, or occupation by virtue of one's awareness of likeness or consciousness of kind.
9. Out-Group : These group are ‘They group’ or ‘Others group’. An out-group is a circle of people to which an individual feels no sense of belongingness. For examples, a tiller of the soil
in our country views his landlord as out-group. It follows that out-group is defined by the individual with relation to the in–group, generally expressed in the contrast between ‘we’ and ‘they’ or ‘other’.
10. Formal Groups : These groups tend to be either large or a part of a large organisation. An army and a labour union is the example of formal group.
11. Informal Groups : These are social units which have all group characteristics. They have established system of interpersonal relations, joint activities, the feeling of belongingness to a group but they lack any legal staus. For example clubs or sports sections, societies etc.
(i) It is correct to say that ‘Man’s Life is a Group-life,’ Man is born in a group, brought up in a group, plays in a group, even learns in a group, progresses in a group and generally dies in society - again a social group.
(ii) We all live in society and bound together through certain norms, values costoms and practices. ‘We’ very often say that we belong to a society, and as members we share, certain traditions, historical experiences - These experiences may be painful or full of pleasures. All these experiences are transmitted to us by the previous generations or the groups of the people.
(iii) No individual can fulfil all his requirements without society or social groups. Division of labour is also possible in a group. Some members of a group have to produce food, others have to weave clothes, some have to erect houses, and so on so forth.
(iv) If a man is united to fulfil his needs, he is also at war with others (in a group) in certain other context.
Thus, in a society where we see so may groups) there is consensus on the tasks to be performed for survival but there is also competition/conflict to have greater share in available resources which are scarce.
(v) Sociology is the study of social relations. It is primarily concerned with social groups. A man cannot be social by himself unless he has previously lived with others. Man's life is to an enormous extent a group life. The groups we belong to are not all of equal importance to us.
(vi) Some groups may tend to influence several aspects of Man's life and bring him or her into personal and familiar association with others.
(i) Primary groups are generally small in size while on the other hand secondary groups are often big in size. Family is an example of primary group, while Political Party is an example of secondary group.
(ii) In primary groups the members (its persons or individuals) have intimate (as in family) relations and peer groups where individuals have direct contact. While in secondary groups there are no intimate relations among each and every member. There is lackness of direct contact also.
(iii) Members the primary group interact and have concern for each other. The membership in primary group is the essential link between the individual and soceity. The secondary groups are just the opposite of primary group.
Impersional, formal and indirect relationships exists among the members of secondary groups. For example, the relationship among the members of club, professional group, political party or trade unions come under the category of secondary groups. These relationships are based on mutual interest. The basis of these relationships are located in unity or common interests.
(iv) In secondary groups, goals are more specific and organizations more structural than in primary groups; also there is lesser intimacy and personal interactions than in primary groups.
(v) Secondary groups are generally regulated by a set of formal rules, there is a formal authority set up with designated power and sharp division of labour. Within the orbit of secondary groups, it may also be possible to form primary group. For instance in a cricket team, players may develop an intimate friendship.
(vi) In brief, the primary group is a personal group, the secondary group an impersonal one; we have personal relations with members of the primary group and impersonal relations with members of secondary group.
(vii) In the primary group, we evaluate members extrinsiceally in terms of the social categories, or statuses, they occupy.
(b) Formal control
1. Formal social controls include all the legislation and enactments practised at various levels such as village, district, state and national level from time to time.
2. Formal social controls include all the legislation and enactments practised at various levels such as village, district, state and national level from time to time.
3. Police departments and other law-enforcement agencies court, mental hospital and prison, etc. are organisations of this type, enforcing rules that have beeen written into law.
4. Members of social control agencies make up a sizeable portion of the labour force and include police officer, judges,lawyers, prison employees, tax collectors, legislators, social workers and other officials in government regulating agencies.
5. The network of such formal positions has tended in modern firms to grow immediately and to over shadow and dominate the informal social control agencies and mechanisms.
6. In the process, it has become more impersonal over time and possibly also more just. For instance the school organisation and in their day-to-day functioning after exercise formal and impersonal social control in matters of admission.
