Psychology Chapter 9 Motivation And Emotion

The concept of motivation focuses on explaining what moves behaviour. Most of our everyday explanation of behaviour is given in terms of motives. There may be a number of reasons for a particular behaviour. Motives also help in making predictions about behaviour. A person will work hard in schools, in sports, in business, in music and in many other situations, if he has a very strong need for an achievement. Hence, motives are the general states that enables us to make predictions about behaviour in many different situations.

Biological bases of hunger and thirst needs-Hunger: The stimuli of hunger include stomach contractions, which signify that the stomach is empty, a low concentration of glucose in the blood, a low level of protein and the amount of fats stored in the body. The liver also responds to the lack of bodily fuel by sending nerve impulses to the brain. The aroma, taste or appearance of food may also result in a desire to eat.

They all in combination act with external factors (such as taste, colour by observing other’s eating, and the smell of food, etc.) to the help one understands that she/he is hungry. Thus, it can be said that our food intake is regulated by a complex feeding satiety system located in the hypothalamus, liver and other parts of the body as well as the external cues available in the environment.

Thirst: When we are deprived of water for a period of several hours, the mouth and throat become dry, which leads to dehydration of body tissues. Drinking water is necessary to wet a dry mouth. The processes within the body itself control thirst and drinking of water. Water must get into the tissues sufficiently to remove the dryness of mouth and throat.

Motivation to drink water is mainly triggered by the conditions of the body: loss of water from cells and reduction of blood volume. When water is lost by bodily fluids, water leaves the interior of the cells. The anterior hypothalamus contains nerve cells called ‘osmoreceptors’, which generate nerve impulses in case of cell dehydration. These nerve impulses act as a signal for thirst and drinking.

Some researchers assume that the mechanism which explains the intake of water is also responsible for stopping the intake of water. Others have pointed out that the role of stimuli resulting from the intake of water in the stomach must have something to do with stopping of drinking water. However, the precise physiological mechanisms underlying the thirst drive are yet to be understood.

Needs for achievement, affiliation and power influence the behaviour of adolescents: Needs for achievement energies and directs behaviour as well as influences the perception of situations. During the formative years of social development, children acquire achievement motivation. They learn it from their parents, other role models, and socio-cultural influences. They have stronger than average desire for feedback on their performance, that is to know how they are doing, so that they can adjust their goals to meet the challenge.

Everybody need company or friend or want to maintain some form of relationship with others. Nobody likes to remain alone all the time. Formation of group is an important feature of human life. It involves motivation for social contact. Need for affiliation is aroused when individuals feel threatened or helpless and also when they are happy. People high on this need are motivated to seek the company of others and to maintain friendly relationships with other people.

Need for power is an ability of a person to produce intended effects on the behaviour and emotions of another person. The various goals of power motivation are to influence, control, persuade, lead and charm others.

Maslow proposed his view about human motivation. He attempted to portray a picture of human behaviour by arranging the various needs in a hierarchy. His viewpoint about motivation is popularly known as ‘Theory of self-actualisation’.

1. Maslow’s model can be conceptualised as a pyramid in which the bottom of this hierarchy represents basic physiological or biological needs which are basic to survival such as hunger, thirst etc. Only when these needs are met, the need to be free from threatened danger arises. This refers to the safety needs of physical and psychological nature.

2. Next comes the need to seek out other people, to love and to be loved. After these needs are fulfilled, the individual strives for esteem, i.e. the need to develop a sense of self-worth. The next higher need in the hierarchy reflects an individual’s motive towards the fullest development of potential, i.e., self-actualisation. A self-actualised person is self- aware, socially responsive, creative, spontaneous, open to novelty, and challenge. S/he also has a sense of humour and capacity for deep interpersonal relationships.

3. Lower level needs (physiological) in the hierarchy dominate as long as they are unsatisfied. Once they are adequately satisfied, the higher needs occupy the individual’s attention and effort. However, very few people reach the highest level because most people are concerned more with the lower level needs.

Fig: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Yes, physiological arousal precede or follow an emotional experience. A great deal of physiological changes happen when we experience emotion. When we are excited, afraid or angry, these bodily changes might be relatively easily noted. While angry or existed about something, heart rate is increased, temples throbs, perspiration is increased, and limbs tremble.

Exact physiological changes that accompany emotions can be measured by sophisticated equipments. Both autonomic as well as somatic nervous system play important role in the emotional process. The experience of emotions is a result of a series of neuro physiological activations in which thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and the cerebral cortex are involved significantly. Individuals with extensive injury in these brain areas have been known to demonstrate impaired emotional abilities. Selective activation of different brain areas has been experimentally shown to arouse different emotions in infants and adults.

Most psychologists today believe that our cognitions, i.e., our perceptions, memories, interpretations are essential ingredients of emotions. Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer have proposed a two-factor theory in which emotions have two ingredients: physical arousal and a cognitive label. They presumed that our experience of emotion grows from our awareness of our present arousal. They also believed that emotions are physiologically similar. For example our heart beats faster when we are excited or scared or angry. We are physiologically aroused and look to the external world for explanation. Thus, in their view an emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation arousal.

If a person is aroused after physical exercise and some one teases him, the arousal already caused by the exercise may lead to provocation.

To test this theory, Schachter and Singer (1962) injected subjects with epinephrine, a drug that produces high arousal. Then these subjects were made to observe the behaviour of others, either in an euphoric manner or in an angry manner. As predicted, the euphoric and angry behaviour of others influenced the cognitive interpretation of the subjects own arousal.

Cultural and Emotional Expression:

(i) The processes involved in emotions have been known to be influenced by culture. Current research has dealt more specifically with the issue of universality or culture specificity of emotions. Most of this research has been carried out on the facial expression of emotions as the face is open to easy observation, is relatively free from complexity and provides a link between subjective experience and overt expression of an emotion. However, emotions are conveyed not only via face. A felt emotion may be communicated through other non-verbal channels as well, for example, gaze behaviour, gestures, paralanguage, and proximal behaviour.

(ii) The emotional meaning conveyed via gestures (body language) varies from culture to culture. For example, in China a handclap is an expression of worry or disappointment, and anger is expressed with laughter. Silence has also been found to convey different meanings for different cultures. For example, in India, deep emotions are sometimes communicated via silence. This may convey embarrassment during communication in Western countries. Cultural differences have also been found in the gaze behaviour. It has been observed that the Latin Americans and the Southern Europeans direct their gaze to the eyes of the interactant. Asians, in particular, Indians and Pakistanis, prefer a peripheral gaze (looking away from the conversational partner) during an interaction.

(iii) The physical space (proximity) also divulges different kinds of emotional meaning during emotional exchanges. The Americans, for example, do not prefer an interaction too close; the Oriental Indians consider a close space comfortable for an interaction. In fact, the touching behaviour in physical proximity is considered reflective of emotional warmth. For example, it was observed that the Arabs experience alienation during an interaction with the North Americans who prefer to be interacted from outside the olfactory (too close) zone.

It is very important to manage negative emotions. The state of depression affects an individual’s ability to think rationally, feel realistically, and work effectively. The condition overwhelms the mood state of the individual. Because of its enduring nature, the individual who suffers from depression develops a variety of symptoms like difficulty in falling asleep, increased level of psychomotor agitation or retardation, decreased ability to think or concentrate, and loss of interest in personal or social activities, etc.

Under demanding and stressful conditions, a lot of negative emotions like fear, anxiety, disgust, etc. develop in an individual to a considerable extent. Such negative emotions, if allowed to prevail for a long time, are like to affect adversely the person’s psychological and physical health. This is the reason why most of the stress management programmes emphasise emotion management as an integral part of stress management. The major focus of emotion management techniques is the reduction of negative emotions and enhancing positive emotions.

Ways to manage negative emotions:

(i) Enhancing self-awareness: One should be aware of one’s emotions and feelings. One should try to gain insight into the ‘how’ and ‘Why’ of his feelings.

(ii) Appraising the situations objectively: It has been proposed that emotions is preceded by evaluation of the event. If the event is experienced as disturbing, one’s sympathetic nervous system is activated and he feels stressed. If he does not experience the events as disturbing, then there is no stress. Hence, it is he who decides whether to feel sad and anxious or happy and relaxed.

(iii) Doing some self-monitoring: This involves constant or periodic evaluation of one’s past accomplishments, emotional and physical states, real and vicarious experiences. A positive appraisal would enhance his faith in himself and lead to enhanced feeling of wellness and contentment.

(iv) Engaging in self-modeling: One should be the ideal for himself. He should repeatedly observe the best parts of his in past performance and use them as an inspiration and motivation to perform better in the future.

(v) Perceptual reorganisation and cognitive restructuring: One should try viewing the events differently and visualise the other side of the coin. One should restructure his thoughts to enhance positive and reassuring feelings and eliminate negative thoughts.

(vi) To creative: One should find and develop an interest or a hobby. He should engage himself in an activity that interests and amuses him.

(vii) Developing and nurturing good relationships: One should choose his/ her, friends carefully. In the company of happy and cheerful friends he/she will feel happy in general.

(viii) Have empathy: One should try understanding other’s feelings too. He/she should make your relationships meaningful and valuable. He/she should seeks as well as provide support mutually.

(ix) Participating in community service: One should help herself/himself by helping others. By doing community service, one will gain important insight about his/her own difficulties.

The process of persistent behaviour directed towards a specific goal, which results from certain driving forces, is called motivation.

Instincts, drives, needs, goals, and incentives come under the broad clusters of motivation.

A need is lack or deficit of some necessity.

A drive is a state of tension or arousal produced by a need.

Biological motives focus on the innate biological causes of motivation like hormones, neurotransmitters, brain structures, etc.

Psychosocial motives are primarily learned from the individual’s interactions with the various environmental factors.

The term instinct denotes inborn patterns of behaviour that are biologically determined rather than learned.

Some common human instincts are curiosity, flight, repulsion, reproduction, parental care, etc.

Some examples of biological motivation are hunger, thirst, and sex.

Our food intake is regulated by a complex feeding-satiety system located in the hypothalamus, liver, and other parts of the body as well as the external cues available in the environment.

(i) The lateral hypothalamus (LH), and (ii) the ventro-medial hypothalamus (VHM).

When we are deprived of water for a period of several hours, the mouth and throat become dry, which leads to dehydration of body tissues.

When thirst is regulated by loss of water from the osmoreceptors, it is called cellular-dehydration thirst.

One of the most powerful drives in both animals and human beings is the sex drive.

Sex hormones secreted by gonads i.e., testes in males and the ovaries in females are primarily responsible for sexual motivation.

Family, neighbourhood, friends and relatives.

Seeking other human beings and wanting to be close to them both physically and psychologically is called affiliation.

Need for power is an ability of a person to produce intended effects on the behaviour and emotions of another person.

Various goals of power motivation are to influence, control, persuade, lead, and charm others and most importantly to enhance one’s own reputation in the eyes of other people.

The tendency to seek for a novel experience, gain pleasure by obtaining information, etc. are signs of curiosity.

Frustration occurs when an anticipated desirable goal is not attained and the motive is blocked.

Aggressive behaviour, fixation, escape, avoidance, and crying.

Conflict occurs whenever a person must choose between contradictory needs, desires, motives or demands.

Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

Joy, surprise, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, guilt, interest, and excitement.

Emotion is a complex pattern of arousal that involves physiological activation, conscious awareness of feeling, and a specific cognitive label that describes the process.

Anxiety is a condition that an individual develops in case of failure to adopt an appropriate ego defence.

By emotional intelligence, we understood the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions to discriminate among them and to use the information of guide one’s thinking and actions.

A lie detector measures changes in blood pressure, heart-rate, breathing-rate and depth, and the Galvanic Skin Response which indicates variations in the electrical conductivity of the skin.

The major source of frustation lies in motivational conflict.

Fig. The Motivational Cycle

Need-conflict-frustration route:

Emotional intelligence: Expressions of emotion depend on regulation of emotion for self or others. Persons who are capable of having awareness of emotions for self or others and regulate accordingly are called emotionally intelligent. Persons who fail to do so, deviate and thereby develop abreaction of emotion, resulting in psychopathology of certain kinds.

By emotional intelligence we understand the ability of monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions (Mayer and Solovey, 1999). The concept of emotional intelligence subsumes intrapersonal and interpersonal elements. The intrapersonal element includes factors like self-awareness (ability to keep negative emotions and impulses under control), and self-motivation (the drive to achieve despite setbacks, developing skills to attain targets and taking initiative to act on opportunities). The interpersonal elements of emotional intelligence include two components: social awareness (the awareness and the tendency to appreciate other’s feelings) and social competence (social skills that help to adjust with others, such as team buildings, conflict management, skills of communicating, etc.)

Physiology of emotion: The nervous system, central as well as peripheral, plays a vital role in the regulation of emotion.

(i) Thalamus: It is composed of a group of nerve cells and act as a relay centre of sensory nerves. Stimulation of thalamus produces fear, anxiety, and autonomic reactions. A theory of emotion given by Cannon and Bard (1931) emphasises the role of thalamus in mediating and initiating all emotional experiences.

(ii) Hypothalamus: It is considered the primary center for regulation of emotion. It also regulates the homoeostatic balance, controls autonomic activity and secretion of endocrine glands, and organises the somatic pattern of emotional behaviour.

(iii) Limbic System: Along with thalamus and hypothalamus the limbic system plays a vital role in regulation of emotion. Amygdala is a part of limbic system, responsible for emotional control and involves formation of emotional memories.

(iv) Cortex: Cortex is intimately involved in emotions. However, its hemispheres have a contrasting role to play. The left frontal cortex is associated with positive feelings whereas the right frontal cortex with negative feelings.

Lie detectors are also called polygraphs because they graphically record several bodily reactions simultaneously which measure the bodily arousal of the individual. Typically a lie detector measures changes in blood pressure, heart-rate, breathing-rate and depth, and the Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) which indicates variations in the electrical conductivity of the skin.

The individual being tested is first asked a series of neutral (control) questions to establish the baseline. Simple questions are followed by specific questions that are designed to evoke responses from a guilty knowledge supposedly indicating the individual’s involvement in the crime being investigated. The lie detector or the polygraph records the changes in neurophysiological activities that occur while the suspected individual answers these questions.

Though the polygraph makes several objective recordings, the interpretation of these records relies heavily on the subjective judgement by the examiner. It is also probable that several unrelated factors like fear, pain or anxiety being felt by the individual during the test may affect her/his level of arousal. It is possible for the individual to lie with it. The validity of polygraph results in doubtful; however these are still used by law-enforcing agencies for lie detection.

Various ways of enhancing positive emotions are as follows:

(i) Personality traits of optimism, hopefulness, happiness and a positive self-regard.

(ii) Finding positive meaning in dire circumstances.

(iii) Having quality connections with others, and supportive network of close relationships.

(iv) Being engaged in work and gaining mastery.

(v) A faith that embodies social support, purpose and hope, leading a life of purpose.

(vi) Positive interpretations of most of the daily events.

Certain key points in anger management are as follows:

(i) Recognising the power of thoughts.

(ii) Realising alone cannot control it.

(iii) Do not engage in ‘self-talk that burns’. Do not magnify negative feelings.

(iv) Do not ascribe intentions and ulterior motives to others.

(v) Resist having irrational beliefs about people and events.

(vi) One should try to find out constructive ways of expressing his anger. He should have control on the degree and duration of anger that he chooses to express.

(vii) Looking inward not outward for anger control.

(viii) Giving oneself time to change. It takes time and effort to change a habit.

Diagrammatic representation of Cannon-Bord theory of emotion:

Learning plays an important role in emotions. This happens in two ways. First, cultural learning influences the expression of emotions more than what is experienced.

For example, some cultures encourage free emotional expression, whereas other cultures teach people, through modeling and reinforcement, to reveal little of their emotions in public.

Second, learning has a great deal to do with the stimuli that produce emotional reactions. It has been shown that individuals with excessive fears (phobia) of elevators, automobiles, and the like learnt these fears through modeling, classical conditioning or avoidance conditioning.

A.

behaviour

D.

All of the above

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necessity

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need

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Hunger

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Need for achievement

B.

instincts

B.

LH

B.

Osmoreceptors

D.

All of the above

A.

affiliation

B.

need for power

D.

all of the above

D.

All of the above

A.

conflict

C.

Both (a) and (b)

D.

All of the above

A.

Lie detector

D.

All of the above

B.

46 labels

A.

Anxiety