Psychology Chapter 8 Thinking

The mental or cognitive rearrangement or manipulation of both information from the environment and of symbols stored in long term memory.

1. Thinking is base of all cognitive activities.

2. It involves manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment.

3. Thinking is mostly goal directed and one desires to reach the goal by planning.

Concepts are mental categories for objects and events, which are similar to each other in one or in more than one way.

Role of concept in thinking process:

1. Concept formation helps us in organizing our knowledge so that whenever we access our knowledge we can do it in less time of effort.

2. Concepts used in thinking are neither deal nor unambigous. They are fuzzy. They overlap one another and are poorly defined.

3. To make thinking systematic a prototype is required. A prototype is a best representative member of category.

There are two major obstacles to solving a problem. These are mental set, and lack of motivation.

(i) Mental set is a tendency of a person to solve problems by following already tried mental operations or steps.

(ii) Lack of motivation is another obstacle to solving problems. Due to lack of motivation people give up easily when they encounter a problem or failure in implementing the first step. Therefore, there is a need to persist in their effort to find a solution.

Reasoning is the process of gathering and analysing information to arrive at a conclusion.

Reasoning is a form of problem solving method. It is goal directed and involves inferences.

There are three ypes of reasoning:

(i) Inductive Reasoning: Reasoning is based on specific facts and observations. Through this reasoning people analysing other possible reasons. Scientific reasoning is inductive in nature.

(ii) Deductive Reasoning: The deductive reasoning begins with general solution and then draws specific solution.

(iii) Analogy: Analogy helps us in identifying and visualising the salient attributes of an object.

Yes, judgement and decision-making are interrelated processes.

1. In decision-making the problem before us is to choose among alternatives by evaluating the cost and benefit associated with each alternative. For example, when you have the option to choose between psychology and economics your decision will be based on future prospects.

2. Decision making differs from other type of problem solving. In decision-making we already know the various solutions of choices.

Divergent thinking: Thinking that meets the criteria of originality, flexibility and inventiveness. It is called as thinking in different directions.

Divergent thinking has following ideas of creativity:

(i) Fluency: It produces many ideas for a given task or problem. The more ideas a person produces higher his fluency ability.

(ii) Flexibility: It produces variety in thinking.

(iii) Originality: It produces ideas that are new and unusual.

(i) Habits: Habits does not allow us to thinking in different and novel ways. It makes our tendency to relate and jump to conclusion.

(ii) Perceptual barriers: Perceptual barriers prevent us from being open to novel and original ideas.

(iii) Motivational and emotional thinking: Motivational and emotional blocks interfere with creative thinking. Lack of motivation, fear of failure, rejection or poor self concept hampers creative thinking.

Cultural barriers: Cultural barriers are related to excessive adherence to traditions, expectations and stereotypes.

There are many strategies which help in enchancing creative thinking. These are as follows:

(i) Originality: Originality can be developed by practicing fluency, flexibility, habit of associative thinking, exploring linkages, and fusing distinct or remote ideas.

(ii) Use of Imagination: Engaging more frequently in activities which require use of imagination and original thinking rather than routine work according to interest and hobbies.

(iii) Not to accept initial ideas: Never accepting the first ideas or solution. Many ideas die because we reject them thinking that the idea might be a silly idea i.e. we have to first generate a number of possible ideas or solutions, then select the best from among them.

(iv) Getting feedback: Getting a feedback on the solutions we decide one from others who are less personally involved in the task.

(v) Chance to Incubate: Giving ideas the chance to incubate. Allowing time for incubation between production of ideas and the stage of evaluation of ideas, may bring in the ‘Aha!’ experience.

(vi) Diagram thinking: Sometimes ideas cluster like branches of a tree. It is useful to diagram our thinking so that we can follow each possible branch to its completion.

(vii) Developing independent thinking: Developing independent thinking in making judgements, figuring out things without any help or resources.

(viii) Self confident: To be self-confident and positive. Never undermine to your creative potential. To experience the joy of your creation.

Thinking cannot take place without language. Benjamin Lee Whorf was of the view that language determines the contents of thought. This view is known as linguistic relativity hypothesis. In its strong version, this hypothesis holds what and how individuals can possibly think is determined by the language and linguistic categories they use (linguistic determinism). Experimental evidence, however, maintains that it is possible to have the same level or quality of thoughts in all languages depending upon the availability of linguistic categories and structures. Some thoughts may be easier in one language compared to another.

Both nature and nurture are important in language acquisition.

B.F. Skinner: According to B.F. Skinner, a behaviourist we learn language the same way as animals learn to pick keys or press bars. Language development follow learning behaviour.

Noam Chomsky view: He is a linguist, put forth the innate proposition of development of language. For him the rate of which children acquire words and grammar without being taught cannot be explained only by learning pricnciples.

Skinner’s emphasis on learning explains infants acquire the language they hear and how they add new words to their vocabularies. Chomsky’s emphasis on our built in readiness to learn grammar helps explain why children acquire language so readily without direct teaching.

Thinking is a complex process through which we can analyse information.

People thinks by mental image of words.

Knowledge is represented either in the form of mental images or words.

An image is a mental representation of a sensory experience; it can be used to think about things, places, and events.

Concept formation helps us in organising our knowledge so that whenever we need to access our knowledge, we can do it with less time and effort.

Levels are classified as superordinate, basic, and subordinate.

A prototype is the best representative member of the category.

Japan, China and Korea.

Two major obstacles to solving a problem are mental set and lack of motivation.

Mental set is a tendency of a person to solve problems by following already tried mental operations or steps.

Functional fixedness in problem solving occurs when people fail to solve a problem because they are fixed on a thing’s usual function.

Problem solving is thinking directed towards the solution of a specific problem.

Mental set, functional fixedness, lack of motivation and persistence are some of the hindrances for effective problem solving.

Reasoning is goal directed, involves inference and can be either deductive or inductive.

The kind of reasoning that begins with an assumption is called deductive reasoning.

Reasoning that is based on specific facts and observation, is called inductive reasoning.

Analogy is a form of reasoning that helps us in identifying and visualising the salient attributes of an object or event, which would otherwise go unnoticed.

In judgement we draw conclusions from opinions, evaluate events, objects, based on knowledge and available evidences.

Applying brakes on seeing the red light.

In decision-making, the problem before us is to choose among alternatives by evaluating the cost and benefit associated with each alternative.

The three levels are super-ordinate level, basic and subordinate level.

Fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration.

Four processes in creative thinking are preparation → incubation → illumination → verification.

Benjamin Lee Whorl states that language determines the contents of thought.

Babbling involves prolonged repetitions of variety of consonants. Example: aaa, uuu.

Memory can be induced and implanted through imagination and inflation.

Creative thinking refers to originality and uniqueness of ideas or solutions that did not previously exist.

Thinking can be said creative when it is reality – oriented, appropriate, constructive, and socially desirable.

Convergent thinking and divergent thinking.

Convergent thinking refers to thinking that is required to solve problems which have only one correct solution.

Divergent thinking abilities include fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.

Elaboration is the ability that enables a person to go into details and workout implications of new ideas.

The first step in developing creative thinking is to identify inhibiting factors that impede creative expression.

Cultural barriers are related to excessive adherence to traditions, expectations, conformity pressures, and stereotypes.

Cultural blocks arise due to the fear of being different, the tendency to maintain status quo, willingness to accept mediocity, preservation of personal security, social pressure, over dependence on others, etc.

According to this hypothesis language determines the contents of thought.

Language consists of a system of symbols organised by means of certain rules that we use to communicate with each other.

While speaking we mostly use basic level concepts.

In prototype matching, people decide whether an item is a member of a category by comparing it with the most typical item (s) of the category.

Vertical thinking involves mental operations that more in a straight line back and forth between lower and higher level concepts.

Lateral thinking involves looking for alternative ways of defining and interpreting problems.

Divergent thinking is essential in generating a wide range of ideas.

Convergent thinking is important to identify the most useful or appropriate idea.

Verification is the lost stage of the process of creative thinking. In this stage the worth or appropriateness of ideas or solutions are tested or judged.

There are blocks to creative thinking which can be categorised as habitual, perceptual, motivational, emotional and cultural.

The perceptual blocks prevent us from being open to novel and original ideas.

Benjamin Lee Whorf.

Jean Piaget.

Lev Vyogotsky.

ANAGRAM, PROBLEM, SOLVE, INSIGHT, SOLUTION.

Analogy is the form of reasoning which involves four parts, A is to B as C is to D with the relation between the first two parts being the same as the relation between the last two.

Example, water is to fish as air is to human.

Uses of Analogy:

Analogy can be helpful in solving problems. They help us in identifying and visualising the salient attributes of an object.

1. Creative thinking involves the production of novel and original ideas or solutions to problems.

2. Creative thinking characterised by surprise.

3. Creative thinking is characterised by its appropriateness.

4. Thinking can be said creative when it is a reality-oriented.

By about nine months of age babbling sounds of a child get elaborated to strings of some sound combinations, such as ‘dadadadada’ into repetitive patterns called ‘echolalia’.

Around the first birthday children move to one or more words which are combined to form whole sentences or phrases. Such phrases are called holophrases.

When children are 18 to 20 months of age, they enter a two word stage and begin to use two words together. The two-word stage exemplifies telegraphic speech.

Manipulation and analysis of information occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem solving, judging and decision-making.

Thinking is an internal mental process which can be inferred from overt behaviour. For example, if we see a chess player engrossed in thinking for several minutes before making a move, we cannot observe what he is thinking. We can simply infer what he was thinking or what strategies he was trying to evaluate from his next move.

When we want to buy a story book our chance would depend upon our knowledge about different authors, themes, etc. Here, our thinking is based on words or concepts.

Children who are very systematic and organised, but their things such as books, note books, pen, pencil, and other accessories in specific places in their cupboard, so that in the morning, they do to have to struggle to find a particular book or the geometry box.

Preparation stage requires one to understand the task or problem in hand, analyse the problem, and become aware of the background facts and related information.

When a person tries to generate alternative ideas and trying to view the problem or task from an unusual perspective, there may be a feeling of getting stuck. One may even get disgusted with failure and may leave the problem or the task for sometime. This is the stage of incubation.

(a) Congergent and Divergent Thinking:

(b) Inductive and deductive Reasoning:

(a) Jean Piaget a Swiss psychologist believed that thoughts not only determine language but it also precedes it. Piaget argued that children form an internal representation of world through language.

(b) J.P. Guilford pioneer in creative thinking, proposed two types of thinking convergent and divergent.

(c) Osborn’s brainstorming technique:

The basic idea let minds think freely and tendency to put judgement may be postponed.

The three characteristics of language are as follows:

(i) The first characteristic of language is that it involves symbols. Symbols represent something or someone else, for example, the place where we live is called ‘home’ the thing that we eat is called ‘food’. Words like home, food, and numerous other words do not in themselves carry any meaning. When these words are associated with some objects / events they attain meaning and we begin recognising those objects / events, etc. with particular words (symbols). We use symbols while thinking.

(ii) The second characteristic of language is that it involves rules. While combining two or more words we usually follow a definite and accepted order of presenting these words.

(iii) The third characteristic of language is that it is used for communicating one’s thought, ideas, intentions, and feelings to others. We communicate through the use of our body parts, called gestures or postures. This type of communication is called nonverbal communication.

B.

all cognitive activities

D.

all of above

A.

mental images

B.

organising our knowledge

C.

the basic level concepts

A.

holistic thinking

D.

Motivation

A.

mental set

B.

deductive reasoning

D.

all of the above

B.

A.D. Karve

D.

All of the above

C.

elaboration

A.

preparation

D.

All of the above

A.

Osborn

A.

Lee Whorf

D.

All of the above

C.

bilingualism

D.

All of the above

D.

babbling