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Themes In World History Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands

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    NCERT Solution For Class 11 History Themes In World History

    The Central Islamic Lands Here is the CBSE History Chapter 4 for Class 11 students. Summary and detailed explanation of the lesson, including the definitions of difficult words. All of the exercises and questions and answers from the lesson's back end have been completed. NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History The Central Islamic Lands Chapter 4 NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History The Central Islamic Lands Chapter 4 The following is a summary in Hindi and English for the academic year 2021-2022. You can save these solutions to your computer or use the Class 11 History.

    Question 1
    CBSEENHS11012530
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    When had the Islam arisen? Describe its impact on the people of Arabia.
    Solution
    Islam was founded by the Prophet Muhammad of Arabia in the 7th century A.D. Before the rise of Islam the people of Arabia were divided into a number of tribes which were always involved in wars.

    The Impact of Islam on Arabian People:
    1. Islam taught them the lesson of brotherhood.
    2. It gave Arabian political unity.
    Within very short period Arabians captured Iran, Syria, Egypt, Central Asia, North Africa, Spain and a part of India.
    Question 3
    CBSEENHS11012532
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    Enlist the main teachings of Islam.
    Solution

    The teachings are: 
    1. There is one all powerful God, ‘Allah’ and Muhammad is his Prophet.
    2. Idol worship is a sin.
    3. All the Muslims are equal and should regard
    themselves as brothers.
    4. A Muslim must not eat Pork.
    5. He must not lend money on interest.
    6. He must follow certain rules laid down regarding marriage and divorce.
    7. He should have faith in the revelations of ‘Quoran’ which is the holy book of the Muslims.

    Tips: -

    (Imp.)
    Question 4
    CBSEENHS11012533
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    Describe the features of Islamic Calendar. 
    Solution

    Islamic Calendar:

    i. The Hijri era was established during the caliphate of Umar, with the first year falling in 622 CE. A date in the Hijri calendar is followed by the letters AH.
    ii. The Hijri year is a lunar year of 354 days, 12 months (Muharram to Dhul Hijja) of 29 or 30 days. Each day begins at sunset and each month with the sighting of the crescent moon.
    iii. The Hijri year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year. Therefore, none of the Islamic religious festivals, including the Ramazan fast, Id and hajj, corresponds in any way to seasons.
    iv. There is no easy way to match the dates in the Hijri calendar with the dates in the Gregorian calendar (established by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 CE).
    vi. One can calculate the rough equivalents between the Islamic (H) and Gregorian Christian (C) years with the following formulae:

    (H × 32 / 33) + 622 = C

    (C – 622) × 33 / 32 = H

    Question 5
    CBSEENHS11012534
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    What is 'Aramaic'?
    Solution

    Aramaic is a language related to Hebrew and Arabic. It has also been used in Ashokan inscriptions.

    Question 6
    CBSEENHS11012535
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    What do you know about tribes in Islamic land? 
    Solution
    Tribes are societies organised on the basis of blood relationships. The Arab tribes were made up of clans or combinations of large families. Unrelated clans also merged to make a tribe stronger.

    Non-Arab individuals (mawali) became members through the patronage of prominent tribesmen. Even after converting to Islam, the mawali were never treated as equals by the Arab Muslims and had to pray in separate mosques.
    Question 7
    CBSEENHS11012536
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    Where was Muhammad forced to migrate? 
    Solution

    Muhammad was forced to migrate with his followers to Medina.

    Question 8
    CBSEENHS11012537
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    What do you know about the Dome of the Rock?
    Solution
    The Dome of the Rock, built over a rocky mound by Abd al-Malik, is the earliest major work of Islamic architecture. Created as a monument to the Muslim presence in the city of Jerusalem, it acquired a mystical association connected with the night Journey of the Prophet to Heaven (miraj).
    What do you know about the Dome of the Rock ?
    Question 9
    CBSEENHS11012538
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    What do you know about the Great Mosque of al-Mutawwakli? 
    Solution

    The Great Mosque of al-Mutawwakil in Samarra, the second Abbasid capital was built in 850. The minar is 50 metres high and is made of brick. Inspired by Mesopotamian architectural traditions, this was the largest mosque in the world for centuries.

    Question 10
    CBSEENHS11012539
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    What was the effect of Muhammad's death? 
    Solution
    After Muhammad’s death in 632, no one could legitimately claim to be the next prophet of Islam. As a result, his political authority was transferred to the umma with no established principle of succession.

    This created opportunities for innovations but also caused deep divisions among the Muslims. The biggest innovation was the creation of the institution of caliphate, in which the leader of the community (amir almuminin) became the deputy (khalifa) of the Prophet. The first four caliphs (632-61) justified their powers on the basis of their close association with the Prophet and continued his work under the general guidelines he had provided.
    The twin objectives of the caliphate were to retain control over the tribes constituting the umma and to raise resources for the state.
    Question 11
    CBSEENHS11012540
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    What do you know about the great mosque of al-Mutawwakil in Samarra?

    Solution
    The Great Mosque of al-Mutawwakil in Samarra (the second Abbasid capital) built in 850. The minar is 50 metres high, and is made of brick Inspired by Mesopotamian architectural traditions, this was the largest mosque in the world for centuries.
    What do you know about the great mosque of al-Mutawwakil in Samarra?
    Question 12
    CBSEENHS11012541
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    Note down the verse which was inscribed on a Mosque lamp.
    Solution

    The verses were:" 


    "God is the Light (nur) of the heavens and the earth His light is like a niche (mishkat) with a lamp (misbah).

    The lamp is in a glass which looks as if it were a glittering star Kindled from a blessed olive (zaitun) tree that is neither eastern nor western.Whose oil would always shine even if no fire (nar) touched it".

    Write down the verse which was inscribed on a Mosque lamp.
    Question 13
    CBSEENHS11012542
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    High Light the contribution of the Arabs to the World Civilisation.
    Solution

    Arab’s contribution in the field of science:


    (i) The Arabs produced great physicians like Al-Razi and Ibn-Sina who respectively discovered the true nature of small-pox and tuberculosis. They organised hospital, for the treatment of the infectious diseases.

    (ii) In Mathematics the Arbs spread the knowledge of numbers and trigonometry in the other regions of the world. Omar-Khayyam a great Mathematician of Arab devised a calendar which is more accurate than the present Christian Calendar.

    (iii) The Arab astronomers believed that the earth revolves round the sun.
    (iv) In Chemistry, the Arbs discovered many new compounds like sodium carbonate, silver nitrate, nitric and sulphuric acids.

    Arab’s Contribution in the Field of Culture :

    (i) In literature, the Arab classic “The Arabian Nights” a collection of 1001 stories “ Rabaiyat
    ” by Omar Khayyam, “Shahnama” by Al-Firdausi are famous all over the world.

    (ii) The buildings of the Arabs and bulb like domes, small minarets, horse shoe arches and twisted columns.
    Question 14
    CBSEENHS11012543
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    Describe the Arabs for being successful in building up a vast empire in less than a hundred years.
    Solution
    1. The Arabs were the excellent fighters who soon laid the foundation of a vast empire extending upto Iran, Syria, Egypt, Central Asia, Africa and Spain.

    2. The Arabs were very successful merchants. They had the trade relations with such far off countries as Rome, Greece, Africa, India and many countries of Central Asia.

    3. The spread of Islam in Arabia also contributed a lot in their quick progress. It united the warring tribes of Arabs and gave them unity which is a first requisite for advancement.

    4. The Arabs borrowed knowledge from whatever source they could get and developed it still further.

    Tips: -

    (Imp.)
    Question 15
    CBSEENHS11012544
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    Mention some of the facts regarding Islamic Calendar.

    Solution

    1. The Hijri era was established during the caliphate of Umar, with the first year falling in 622 CE. A date in the Hijri calendar is followed by the letters AH
    2. The Hijri year is a lunar year of 354 days, 12 months (Muharram to Dhul Hijja) of 29 or 30 days. Each day begins at sunset and each month with the sighting of the creseent moon. The Hijri year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year.
    3. Therefore, none of the Islamic religious festivals, including the Ramazan fast, Id and hajj, corresponds in any way to seasons. There is no easy way to match the dates in the Hijri calender with the dates in the Gregorian calendar (established by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 CE).
    One can calculate the rough equivalents between the Islamic (H) and Gregorian Christian (C) years with the following formulae :
    (H x 32 / 33) + 622 = C
    (C - 622) x 33 / 32 = H
    Question 16
    CBSEENHS11012545
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    Describe the facts regarding the coinage reform of Abda-Malik.

    Solution
    The coinage reform of Abda-Malik:
    1. The three coin specimens show the transition from Byzantine to Arab-Islamic coinage. On the second coin, the bearded and long -haired caliph is dressed in traditional Arab robes and is holding a sword. It is the first extant portrait of a Muslim.

    2. It is also unique because later there developed an antipathy towards the representation of living beings in art and craft. Abd al-malik’s reform of coinage was linked with his reorganisation of state finances.

    3. It is also unique because later there developed an antipathy towards the representation of living beings in art and craft. Abd al-malik’s reform of coinage was linked with his reorganisation of state finances.

    Mention some of the facts of the coinage reform of Abda-Malik.

    4. It proved so successful that for hundreds of years, coins were struck according to the pattern and weight of the third specimen.
    Question 17
    CBSEENHS11012546
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    Describe the features of tribes of the Arabs.
    Solution
    The Arabs were divided into tribes (qabila), each led by a chief who was chosen partly on the basis of his family connections but more for his personal courage, wisdom and generosity (murawwa). Each tribe had its own god or goddess, who was worshipped as an idol (sanam) in a shrine (masjid).

    Many Arab tribes were nomadic (Bedouins), moving from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food (mainly dates) and fodder for their camels. Some settled in cities and practised trade or agriculture.

    Muhammad’s own tribe, Quraysh, lived in Mecca and controlled the main shrine there, a cube- like structure called Kaba, in which idols were placed. Even tribes outside Mecca considered the Kaba installed their own idols at this shrine, making annual pilgrimages (Hajj) to the shrine.

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    Question 18
    CBSEENHS11012547
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    State the importance of Mecca. 
    Solution
    Mecca was located on the crossroads of a trade route between Yemen and Syria which further enhanced the city’s importance. The Meccan shrine was a sanctuary (haram) where violence was forbidden and protection was given to all visitors.

    Pilgrimage and commerce gave the nomadic and settled tribes opportunities to communicate with one another and share their beliefs and customs.

    Although the polytheistic Arabs were vaguely familiar with the notion of Supreme God, Allah (possibly under the influence of the jewish and Christian tribes living in their midst), their attachment to idol and shrines was more immediate and stronger.

    Tips: -

    (M.Imp.)
    Question 20
    CBSEENHS11012549
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    Discuss Muhammad declaring himself as the messenger of God and ritual of worship propagated by him. 
    Solution
    Around 612, Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger (rasul) of God who had been commanded to preach that Allah alone should be worshipped.

    The worship involved simple rituals, such as daily prayers (salat), and moral principales, such as distributing alms and abstaining from theft. Muhammad was to found a community of believers (umma) bound by a common set of religious beliefs.
    The community would bear witness (shahada) to the existence of the religion before God as well as before members of other religious communities. Muhammad’s message particularly appealed to those Meccans who felt deprived of the gains from trade and religion and were looking for a new community identity.

    Those who accepted the doctrine were called Muslims. They were promised salvation on the Day Judgement (qiyama) and a share of the resources of the community while on earth.
    Question 21
    CBSEENHS11012550
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    'The survival of a religion rests on the survival of the community of believers'. Describe. 
    Solution

    The survival of a religion rests on the survival of the community of believers.


    The community has to be consolidated internally and protected from external dangers. Consolidation and protection require political institutions such as states and governments which are either inherited from the past, borrowed from outside or created from scratch.

    Question 22
    CBSEENHS11012551
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    Describe the political order created by Muhammad. 
    Solution
    In Medina, Muhammad created a political order from all three sources which gave his followers the protection they needed as well as resolved the city’s ongoing civil strife.

    The umma was converted into a wider community to include polytheists and the Jews of Medina under the political leadership of Muhammad. Muhammad consolidated the faith for his followers by adding and refining rituals (such as fasting) and ethical principles. The community survived on agriculture and trade, as well as an alms tax (zakat). In addition, the Muslims organised expeditionary raids (ghazw) on Meccan caravans and nearby oases. These raids provoked reactions from the Meccans and caused a breach with the Jews of Medina. 
    Question 23
    CBSEENHS11012552
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    What were the features of the lives of the Bedouins in the early Seventh Century ?
    Solution

    The Bedouins were nomadic Arab tribes.

    i.They moved from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food (mainly dates) and fodder for their camels.

    ii. Some settled in cities and practised trade or agriculture.

    Question 24
    CBSEENHS11012553
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    What is meant by the term ‘ Abbasid revolution ?
    Solution
    The term “ Abbasid Revolution” referred to the Dawa movement. This movement was initiated by Abu Muslim from Khurasan against the  Umayyad dynasty. The Abbasid revolution put an end to the Umayyad dynasty. The revolution led not only to a change of dynasty but changes in the political structure and culture of Islam.
    Question 25
    CBSEENHS11012554
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    Give examples of the cosmopolitan character of the states set up by Arabs, Iranians and Turks.
    Solution
    Examples of cosmopolitan characters of the states set up by Arabs, Iranians and Turks:

    (i) The vast Arab empire was inhabited by the people of multi cultural identities,e.g.- the Muslims, the Christians and the Jews.
    (ii) In Turkish empire, the Egyptian, Iranian, Syrian, Sudanian, cultural developed simultaneously.
    (iii) The Iranian empire witnessed for the development of Muslims and Asian cultural.
    Question 26
    CBSEENHS11012555
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    What were the effect of the crusades of Europe and Asia ?
    Solution

    The effects:


    i. The Crusades left a lasting impact on two aspects of Christian-Muslim relations. One was the harsher attitude of the Muslim state towards its Christian subjects which resulted from the bitter memories of the conflict as well as the needs for security in areas of mixed populations.

    ii. The other was the greater influence of Italian mercantile communities (from Pisa, Genoa and Venice) in the trade between the East and the West even the restoration of Muslim power.
    Question 27
    CBSEENHS11012556
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    Describe the event that followed after the death of Malik Shah in 1902. 
    Solution
    The death in 1092 of Malik Shah, the Saljuq sultan of Baghdad, was followed by the disintegration of his empire.

    This offered the Byzantine emperor, Alexius I, a chance to regain Asia Minor and northern Syria. For Pope Urban II, this was an opportunity to revive the spirit of Christianity. In 1095, the Pope joined the Byzantine emperor in calling for a war in the name of God to liberate the Holy Land. Between 1095 and 1291, western European Christians planned and fought wars against Muslim cities on the coastal plains of the eastern Mediterranean (Levant). These wars were later designated as Crusades*.
    Question 28
    CBSEENHS11012557
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    Describe the various aspect of the Quran. 
    Solution
    The aspects of Quran are: 

    1. The Quran is a book in Arabic divided into 114 chapters (suras) and arranged in descending order of length, the shortest being the last. The only exception to this is the first sura which is a shorter prayer (al-fatiha or opening).


    According to Muslim tradition, the Quran is a collection of message (revelations) which God sent to the Prophet Muhammad between 610 and 632, first in Mecca and then in Medina. The task of compiling these revelations was completed some time in 650.


    The oldest complete Quran we have today dates from the ninth century. There are many fragments which are older, the earliest being the verses engraved on the Dome of the Rock and on coins in the seventh century.

    2. The use of the Quran as a source material for the history of early Islam has posed some problems. The first is that is a scripture, a text vested with religious authority.


    3. Theologians generally believed that as the speech of God (Kalam allah), it has to be understood literally, but rationalists among them gave wider interpretations to the Quran. In 833,. the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun imposed the view (in a trial of faith or mihna ) that the Quran is God’s creation rather than his speech.


    4. The second problem is that the Quran very often speaks in metaphors and, unlike the old Testament (Tawrit), it does not narrate events but only refers to them. Medieval Islamic scholars thus had to make sense of many verses with the help of hadith. Many hadith were written to help the reading of the Quran.
    Question 29
    CBSEENHS11012558
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    Mention the contribution of Sufis to the religious world. 
    Solution
    A group of religious- minded people in medieval Islam, known as Sufis, sought a deeper and more personal knowledge of God through asceticism (rahbaniya) and mysticism. The more society gaveitselfupto material pursuits and pleasures, the more the Sufis sought to renounce the world (zuhd) and rely on God alone (tawakkul).


    In the eighth and ninth centuries, ascetic inclinations were elevated to the higher stage of mysticism ( tasawwuf ) by the ideas of pantheism and love.

    Pantheism is the idea of oneness of God and his creation which implies that the human soul must be united with its Maker. Unity with God can be achieved through an intense love for God ( Ishq), which the woman-saint Rabia of Basra (d. 891) preached in her poems. Bayazid Bistami (d.874), an Iranian Sufi, was the first to teach the importance of submerging the self (fana) in God.
    Sufis used musical concerts (sama) to induce ecstasy and stimulate emotions of love and passions.

    Sufism is open to all regardless of religious affiliation, status and gender. Dhulnum Misri (d.861), whose grave can still be seen near the Pyramids in Egypt, declare before the Abbasid caliph, al-Mutawakkil, that he ‘learnt true Islam from an old woman, and true chivalry from a water carrier’.


    By making religion more personal and less institutional, Sufism gained popularity and posed a challenge to orthodox Islam.
    Question 30
    CBSEENHS11012559
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    What do you know about the rift between Muslims during 656-61? 
    Solution
    The rifts among the Muslims deepened after Ali (656-61) fought two wars against those who represented the Meccan aristocracy. Ali’s supporters and enemies later came to form the two main sects of Islam: Shias and Sunnis.


    Ali established himself at Kufa and defeated an army led by Muhammad’s wife, Aisha, in the Battle of the camel (657). He was, however, not able to suppress the faction led by Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthman and the Governor of Syria. Ali’s second battle, at Siffin (northern Mesopotamia), ended in truce which split his followers into two groups: some remained loyal to him, while others left the camp and came to be known as Kharjis.

    Soon after, Ali was assassinated by a Kharji in a mosque at Kufa. After his death, his followers paid allegiance to his son, Hussain, and his descendants. Muawiya made himself the next caliph in 661, founding the Umayyad dynasty which lasted till 750.
    Question 31
    CBSEENHS11012560
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    What do you know about the new language and the father of New Persian poetry? Eludicate 
    Solution

    By the time the Arabs conquered Iran, Pahlavi, the language of the sacred books of ancient Iran, was in decay. A version of Pahlavi, known as New Persian, with a huge Arabic vocabulary, soon developed.


    The formation of sultanates in Khurasan and Transoxiana took New Persian to great cultural heights. The Samanid court poet  (d.940) was considered the father of New Persian poetry, which included new forms such as the short lyrical poem (ghazal) and the quatrain (rubai, plural rubaiyyat).

    The rubai is a four-line stanza in which the first two lines set the stage, the third is finely poised, and the fourth delivers the point. In contrast to its form, the subject-matter of the rubai is unrestricted. It can be used to express the beauty of a beloved, praise a patron, or express the thoughts of the philospher
    .
    The rubai reached its zenith in the hands of Umar Khayyam (1048-1131), also an astronomer and mathematician, who lived at various times in Bukhara, Samarqand and Isfahan.
    Question 32
    CBSEENHS11012561
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    Write a brief note on Shahnama.
    Solution
    The Shahnama, Book of Kings, was completed in 30 years by Firdausi, is an epic of 50,000 couplets which has become a masterpiece of Islamic literature.

    The Shahnama is a collection of traditions and legends (the most popular being that of Rustam), which poetically depicts Iran from Creation up until the Arab conquest. It was in keeping with the Ghaznavi tradition that Persian later became the language of administration and culture in India.
    Question 33
    CBSEENHS11012562
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    Describe some of the famous literary work during Arabic period.
    Solution
    Some of the literary works are described below: 

    i. The catalogue (Kitab al-Fihrist) of a Baghdad bookseller, Ibn Nadim (d.895), describes a large number of works written in prose for the moral education and amusement of readers. The oldest of these is a collection of animal fables called Kalila waDimna (the names of the two jackals who were the leading characters) which is the Arabic translation of a Pahlavi version of the Panchtantra.

    ii. The most widespread and lasting literary works are the stories of hero-adventurers such as Alexander(al-Iskandar) and Sindbad, or those of un- happy lovers such as Qays (known as Majnum or the Madman). These have developed over the centimes into oral and written traditions.

    iii. The Thousand and one Nights is another collection of stories told by a single narrator, Shahrzad, to her husband night after night. The collection was originally in Indo-Persian and was translated into Arabic in Baghdad in the eighth century.

    iv. More stories were stories were later added in cairo during the mamluk period. These stories depict human beings of different types the generous, the stupid, the gullible, the crafty-and were told to educate and entertain.

    v. In his Kitab al- Bukhala (Book of Misers), Jahiz of Basra (d.868) collected amusing anecdotes about misers and also analysed greed.
    Question 34
    CBSEENHS11012563
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    How were Islamic architectural forms different from those of the Roman Empire ?
    Solution
    By the tenth century, an Mamie world had emerged which was easily recognisable by travellers. Religious buildings were the greatest external symbols of this world. Mosques, shrine3 and tombs from Spain to Central Asia showed the same basic design-arches, domes, minarets and open courtyards and expressed the spirtual and practical needs of Muslims.

    i. In the first Islamic century, the mosque acquired a distinct architectural form (roof supported by pillars) which transcended regional variations. The mosque had an open courtyard (sahn) where a fountain or pond was placed, leading to a vaulted hall which could accommodate long lines of worshippers and the prayer leader (imam).

    Two special features were located inside the hall:a niche (mihrab) in the wall indicating the direction of Mecca (qibla), and a pulpit (minbar, pronounced mimbar) from where sermons were delivered during noon prayers on Friday.

    ii.  Attached to the building was the minaret, a tower used to call the faithful to prayer at the appointed times and to symbolise the presence of the new faith. Time was marked in cities and villages by the five daily prayers and weekly sermons.

    iii. The same pattern of construction - of buildings built around a central courtyard (iwan)- appeared not only in mosques and mausoleums but also in caravanserais, hospitals and palaces.

    The Umayyads built ‘desert palaces’ in oases, such as Khirbat al-Mafjar in Palestine and Qusayr Amra in Jordan, Which served as luxurious residences and retreats for hunting and pleasure.
     

    iv. The palaces, modelled on Roman and Sasanian architecture, were lavishly decorated with sculptures, mosaics and paintings of people. The Abbasids built a new imperial city in Samarra amidst gardens and running waters which is mentioned in the stories and legends revolving around Harun al-Rashid.

    The great palaces of the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad or the Fatimids in Cairo have disappeared, leaving only traces in literary texts
    Question 35
    CBSEENHS11012564
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    Why the hostility towards the Muslim world became more pronounced in the 11th century? Discuss the event that followed. 
    Solution

    Normans, Hungarians and some slaves had been converted to Christianity, and the Muslims alone remained as the main enemy. There was also a change in the social and economic orgainsation of western Europe in the eleventh century which contributed to the hostility between Christendom and the Islamic world.

    The clergy and the warrior class (the first two orders-see Themes 6) were making efforts to ensure political stability as well as economic growth based on agriculture and trade. The possibilities of military confrontation between competing feudal principalities and a return to economic organisation based on plunder were contained by the Peace of God movement.

    All military violence was forbidden inside certain areas, near places of worship, during certain periods considered sacred in the Church’s calendar, and against certain vulnerable social groups, such as churchmen and the common people.

    The Peace of God deflected the aggressive tendencies of feudal society away from the Christian world and towards the ‘enemies’ of God. It built a climate in which fighting against the infidels (non-believers) became not only permissible but also commendable.
    Question 36
    CBSEENHS11012565
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    What had happened after the death of Muhammad? Describe the expansion of different religions. 
    Solution
    Following Muhammad’s death, many tribes broke away from the Islamic state. Some even raised their own prophets to establish communities modelled on the umma. The first caliph, Abu Bakr, suppressed the revolts by a series of campaigns.

    The second caliph, Umar, shaped the umma’s policy of expansion of power. The caliph knew that the umma could not be maintained out of the modest income derived from trade and taxes.
    Realising that rich booty (ghanima) could be obtained from expeditionary raids, the caliph and his military commanders mustered their tribal strength to conquer lands belonging to the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Sasanian empire in the east. At the height of their power, the Byzantine and Sasanian empires ruled vast territories and commanded huge resources to pursue their political and commercial interests in Arabia.

    The Byzantine Empire promoted Christianity and the Sasanian empire patronised Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Iran. On the eve of the Arab invasions, these two empires had declined in strength due to religious conflict and revolts by the aristocracy.

    This made it easier for the Arabs to annex territories through wars and treaties. In three successful campaigns (637-642), the Arabs brought Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt under the control of Medina. Military strategy, religious fervour and the weakness of the opposition contributed to the success of the Arabs.

    Further campaigns were launched by the third caliph, Uthman, to extend the control to Central Asia. Within a decade of the death of Muhammad, the Arab-Islamic state controlled the vast territory between the Nile and the Oxus. These lands remain under Muslim rule to this day.
    Question 37
    CBSEENHS11012566
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    Mention the status of Economy and Commerce in the Arab land. 
    Solution
    The state had overall control of agricultural lands, deriving the bulk of its income from land revenue once the conquests were over.
    i. The lands conquered by the Arabs that remained in the hands of the owners were subject to a tax (kharaj), which varied from half to a fifth of the produce, according to the conditions of cultivation.

    ii. On land held or cultivated by Muslims, the tax levied was one-tenth (ushr) of the produce. When non-Muslims started to convert to Islam to pay lower taxes, this reduced the income of the state. To address the shortfall, the caliphs first discouraged conversions and later adopted a uniform policy of taxation.

    iii. From the tenth century onwards, the state authorised its officials to claim their salaries from agricultural revenues from territories, called iqtas (revenue assignments).

    iv. Agricultural prosperity went hand in hand with political stability. In many areas, especially in the Nile valley, the state supported irrigation systems, the construction of dams and canals, and the digging of wells (often equipped with water wheels or noria) all of which were crucial for good harvests.

    v. Islamic law gave tax concessions to people who brought land under cultivation. Through peasant initiatives and state support, cultivable land expanded and productivity rose, even in the absence of major technological changes.

    vi. Many new crops such as cotton, oranges, bananas, watermelons, spinach and brinjals (badinjan) were grown and even exported to Europe.
    Question 38
    CBSEENHS11012567
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    Elucidate the development of urbanisation in the Islamic land. 
    Solution
    Islamic civilisation flourished as the number fo cities grew phenomenally.
    1. Many new cities were founded, mainly to settle Arab soldiers (jund) who formed the backbone of the local administration. Among this class of garrison cities, called misr (the Arabic name for Egypt), were Kufa and Basra in Iraq, and Fustat and Cairo in Egypt. Within half a century of its establishment as the capital of the Abbasid caliphate (800), the population of Baghdad had reached around 1 million.

    2. Alongside these cities were older towns such as Damascus, Isfahan and Samarquand, which received a new lease of life. Their size and population surged, supported by an expansion in the production of foodgrains and raw materials such as cotton and sugar for urban manufactures. A vast urban network developed, linking one town with another and forming a circuit.

    3. At the heart of the city were building complexes radiating cultural and economic power: the congregational mosque (masjid al-jami) big enough to be seen from a distance, and the central marketplace (suq), with shops in a row, merchants’ lodgings and the office of the money-changer.

    The cities were homes to administrators (ayan or eyes of the state), and scholars and merchants (tujjar) who lived close to the centre.


    4. Ordinary citizens and soldiers had their living quarters in the outer circle, each fitted with its own mosque, church or synagogue (Jewish temple), subsidiary market and public bath (hammam), an important meeting place.

    At the outskirts were the houses of the urban poor, a market for green vegetables and fruits brought from the countryside, caravan stations and ‘unclean’ shops, such as those dealing in tanning or butchering.

    5. Beyond the city walls were inns for people to rest when the city gates were shut and cemeteries. There were variations on this typology depending on the nature of the landscape, political traditions and historical events.
    Question 39
    CBSEENHS11012568
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    'Political unification and urban demand for foodstuffs and luxuries enlarged the circuit of exchange'. Describe.
    Solution
    Political unification and urban demand for foodstuffs and luxuries enlarged the circuit of exchange:

    i. Geography favoured the Muslim empire, which spread between the trading zones of the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. For five centuries, Arab and Iranian traders monopolised the maritime trade between China, India and Europe.

    ii. This trade passed through two major routes, namely, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. High - value goods suitable for long-distance trade, such as spices, textile, porcelain and gunpowder, were shipped from India and China to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Aydhab and the Gulf ports of Siraf and Basra.

    iii. From here, the merchandise was carried overland in camel caravans to the warehouses (makhazin, origin of the magazine which has a similar collection of articles) of Baghdad, Damascus and Aleppo for local consumption or onward transmission.

    iv. The caravans passing through Mecca got bigger whenever the hajj coincided with the sailing seasons (mawasim,  origin of the word monsoon) in the Indian Ocean.

    v. At the Mediterranean end of these trade routes, exports to Europe from the port of Alexandria were handled by Jewish merchants, some of whom traded directly with India, as can be seen from their letters preserved in the  Geniza collection.

    vi. However, from the tenth century, the Red Sea route gained greater importance due to the rise of Cairo as a centre of commerce and power and growing demand for eastern goods from the trading cities of Italy.

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    Question 40
    CBSEENHS11012569
    Wired Faculty App

    Explain the Fiscal system and the market exchange methodologies in the central Islamic lands.  
    Solution
    The fiscal system (income and expenditure of the state) and market exchange increased the importance of money in the central Islamic lands.

    i. Coins of gold, silver and copper ( fulus) were minted and circulated, often in bags sealed by money-changers, to pay for goods and services. Gold came from Africa (Sudan) and silver from Central Asia (Zarafshan Valley). Precious metals and coins also came from Europe, which used these to pay for its trade with the East. 

    ii. Rising demand for money forced people to release their accumulated reserves and idle wealth into circulation.

    iii. Credit combined with currencies to oil the wheels of commerce. The greatest contribution of the Muslim world to medieval economic life was the development of superior methods of payment and business organisation. Letters of credit (sakk, origin of the word cheque) and bills of exchange (suftaja) were used by merchants and bankers to transfer money from one place or individual to another.

    iv. The widespread use of commercial papers freed merchants from the need to carry cash everywhere and also made their journeys safer. The caliph too used the sakk to pay salaries or reward poets and minstrels.Although it was customary for merchants to set up family businesses or employ slaves to run their affairs, formal business arrangements (muzarba) were also common in which sleeping partners entrusted capital to travelling merchants and shared profits and losses in an agreed proportion.

    Question 41
    CBSEENHS11012570
    Wired Faculty App

    Describe the cause of the growth of Arab Civilization. What impact did it have on the civilizations of the other Regions of the World ?

    Solution

    1. Causes of the growth of the Arab Civilization :
    (i) In the 7th Century, a new religion (Islam) arose in Arabi. This religion did a great miracle by uniting the warring tribes of Arabia. It gave them unity which is the first need of growth and advancement.
    (ii) Arabs were very good fighters : By winning many wars, they extended their empire upto Iran, Syria, Egypt, Central Asia, North Africa and Spain.
    (iii) The Arabs were successful, merchants : They had the trade relations with many countries like Rome, Greece, Iran, India, etc.
    (iv) The Arabs made all knowledge of their own and developed it further : They played a significant role in bringing together the intellectual and scientific knowledge of various civilizations, particulaly, the Greek, Persian and Indian. In this manner, they advanced themselves than all other peoples of the Medieval world in the field of knowledge.
    2. Arab Contribution to the other regions of the world :
    (i) The arabs gave the world the ideals of brotherhood and equality.
    (ii) The Arabs were very much advanced in the field of medical science. They produced the great physicians like Al-Razi and Ibn-Sina who respectively discovered the true nature of smallpox and Tuber-culosis, Ibn Sina also descirbed some diseases of the nervous system.
    (iii) The Arab astronomers knew it that the earth rotates on its axes and revolves round the sun.
    (iv) In Mathematics the Arabs learned the Indian numerals. They learnt Trigonometry from the Greek and improved upon the existing knowledge. A great Arab Mathematician Omar Kayyam prepared a calendar which is more accurate than the present Christian Calendar.
    (v) In Chemistry, the compounds like Sodium Carbonate, Silver Nitrate, Nitric and Sulphuric Acids were also discovered by the Arabs.
    (vi) In Literature, the Arab classic 'The Arabian Nights' a collection of 1001 stories, “Rubaiyat” by ‘Omar Khayyam’. ‘Shahnama’ by ‘Al-Firdausi’ are famous all over the world.
    (viii) The enamelled glassware, beautiful swords, inlays, metal work, leather work and Arab carpets are highly appreciated and prized everywhere even today.

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    Question 42
    CBSEENHS11012571
    Wired Faculty App

    Man’s interests in trade and religion have often gone hand in hand throughout history. What examples of this do you find in medieval times ?

    Solution
    It has rightly been said that history is the proof of this that man’s interest in trade and religion have often gone hand in hand. Particularly the history of medieval world has many examples to prove the truthfulness of this statement.
    Some of the examples connected with the medieval times are given below :
    (i) In the beginning the Indian traders went to the many countries of South East Asia for the trade in gold, tin, ivory, spices, etc. These traders also took with them the ideas and paractices of the Hindu and the Buddhist religions which gradually became the part and parcel of their culture.
    These religions were adopted by a large number of the people of China, Sri Lanka, Kambodia, Jawa, etc.
    (ii) The Arab merchants had their trade relations with India and many other countries of Europe and Africa. The Arab traders brought to India the message of their new religion, i.e. Islam, which was adopted by many Indians. In the same manner Islam was spread in Spain, North-Africa, Syria, Iran, etc:
    (iii) The traders of many European Countries like England, France, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Rome, etc. went to many countries’ for the trade. Alongwith the trade items they also brought with them the ideas of Christianity. This religion was adopted by many people in the Asian and African countries.

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    Question 43
    CBSEENHS11012572
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    What is meant by Crusades? Mention their negative and positive effect of it.
    Solution
    The holy wars fought between the Christians and the Muslims during the Middle Ages over the control of Jerusalem are called the crusades.


    2. Negative effect of the Crusades:

    (i) These crusades were fought 1096 to 1291 A.D. with little intervals here and there. In these
    wars, thousands lost their life.

    (ii) The weakness of the church was exposed and severe below was given to the power and prestige of the papacy.

    3. The positive effect of the Crusades:

    (i) The crusades helped in the development of Europe a culture and civilization. The European enriched their knowledge in almost all the fields.

    (ii) These crusades led to the increase in trade between the east and west. The Europeans came to know many new articles of daily use such as silk, cotton, sugar, glasswares, spices, medicines, etc.

    (iii) The crusades encouraged the spirit of adventure and geographical exploration. Various new lands like America were discovered. A new route to India was also discovered.
    Question 44
    CBSEENHS11012573
    Wired Faculty App

    Why Political expansion and unification did not come easily to the Arbr tribesman ?

    Solution
    1. Political expansion and unification did not come easily to the Arab tribesmen. With territorial expansion, the unity of the umma became threatened by conflicts over the distribution of resources and offices. The ruling class of the early Islamic state comprised almost entirely the Quraysh of Mecca.
    The third caliph, Utman (644-56), also a Quraysh, packed his administration with his own men to secure greater control. This further intensified the Meccan character of the state and the conflict with the other tribesmen.
    Opposition in Iraq and Egypt, comibined with opposition in Medina, led to the assassination of Uthman. With Uthman’s death, Ali became the fourth caliph.
    2. The rifts among the Muslims deepened after Ali (656-61) fought two wars against those who represented the Meccan arstocracy. Ali’s supporters and enemies later came to form the two main sects of Islam Shias and Sunnis.
    3. Ali established himself at Kufa and defeated an army led by Muhammad’s wife, Aisha, in the Battle of the Camel (657). He was, however, not able to suppress the faction led by Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthman and the governor of Syria.
    Ali’s second battle, at Siffin (northern Mesopotamia), ended in a truce which spilt his followers into two groups : some remained loyal to him, while others left the camp and came to be known as Kharjis. Soon after, Ali was assassinated by a Kharji in a mosque at Kufa. After his death, his followers paid allegiance to his son, Hussain, and his descendants. Muawiya made himself the next caliph in 661, founding the Umayyad dynasty which lasted till 750.
    4. After the civil wars, it appeared as if Arab domination would disintegrate. There were also signs that the tribal conquerors were adopting the sophisticated culture of their subjects. It was under the Umayyads, a prosperous clan of the Quraysh tribe, that a second round of consolidation took place.
    Question 45
    CBSEENHS11012574
    Wired Faculty App

    Why was the decision not to abolish the caliphate was a shrewd one? Describe. 

    Solution

    The decision not to abolish the caliphate was a shrewd one, because another Shiite dynasty, the Fatimids, had ambitions to rule the Islamic world.
    The Fatimids belonged to the Ismaili sub-sect of Shiism and claimed to be descended from the Prophet’s daughter, Fatima, and hence, the sole rightful rulers of Islam. From their base in North Africa, they conquered Egypt in 969 and established the Fatimid caliphate. The old capital of Egypt, Fustat, was replaced by a new city, Qahira (Cairo), founded on the day of the rise of the planet Mars (Mirrikh, also called al-Qahir). The two rival dynasties patronised Shiite administrators, poets and scholars.

    Question 46
    CBSEENHS11012575
    Wired Faculty App

    What was the main purpose of the Crusades ? What were its effects on the Muslims and Christians ?

    Solution
    1. In medieval Islamic societies, Christians were regarded as the People of the Book (ahl al-kitail) since they had their own scripture (the New Testament or Injil). Christians were granted safe conduct (amail) while venturing into Muslim states as merchants, pilgrims, ambassadors and travellers.
    These territories also included those which were once held by the Byzantine Empire, notably the Holy Land of Palestine. Jerusalem was conquered by the Arabs in 638 but it was ever-present in the Christian imagination as the place of Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection.
    This was an important factor in the formation of the image of Muslims in Christian Europe.
    Hostility towards the Muslim world became more pronounced in the eleventh century. Normans, Hungarians and some Slavs had been converted to Christianity, and the Muslims alone remained as the main enemy.
    There was also a change in the social and economic organisation of western Europe in the eleventh century which contributed to the hostility between Christendom and the Islamic world.
    2. The clergy and the warrior class were making efforts to ensure political stability as well as economic growth based on agriculture and trade. The possibilities of military confrontation between competing feudal principalities and a return to economic organisation based on plunder were contained by the Peace of God movement.
    3. All military violence was forbidden inside certain areas, near places of worship, during certain periods considered sacred in the Church’s calendar, and against certain vulnerable social groups, such as churchmen and the common people.
    4. The Peace of God deflected the aggressive tendencies of feudal society away from the Christian world and towards the ‘enemies’ of God. It built a climate in which fighting against the infidels (non-believers) became not only permissible but also commendable.
    5. The Crusades left a lasting impact on two aspects of Christian-Muslim relations. One was the harsher attitude of the Muslim state towards its Christian subjects which resulted from the bitter memories of the conflict as well as the needs for security in areas of mixed populations.
    The other was the greater influence of Italian mercantile communities (from Pisa, Genoa and Venice) in the trade between the East and the West even after the restoration of Muslim power.
    Question 47
    CBSEENHS11012576
    Wired Faculty App

    What do you know about the economy, agriculture urbanisation and commerce of the central Islamic period ?

    Solution
    1. Agriculture was the principal occupation of the settled populations in the newly conquered territories. The Islamic state made no changes in this. Land was owned by big and small peasants and, in some cases, by the state.
    In Iraq and Iran, land existed in fairly large units cultivated by peasants. The estate owners collected taxes on behalf of the state during the Sasanian as well as Islamic periods. In areas that had moved from a pastoral to a settled agricultural system, land was the common property of the village.
    Finally, big estates that were abandoned by their owners after the Islamic conquests were acquired by the state and handed over mainly to the Muslim elites of the empire, particularly members of the caliph’s family.
    2. The state had overall control of agricultural lands, deriving the bulk of its income from land revenue once the conquests were over. The lands conquered by the Arabs that remained in the hands of the owners were subject to a tax (kharaj), which varied from half to a fifth of the produce, according to the conditions of cultivation.
    On land held or cultivated by Muslims, the tax levied was one-tenth (ushil) of the produce.When non-Muslims started to convert to Islam to pay lower taxes, this reduced the income of the state. To address the shortfall, the caliphs first discouraged conversions and later adopted a uniform policy of taxation.
    From the tenth century onwards, the state authorised its officials to claim their salaries from agricultural revenues from territories, called iqtas (revenue assignments).
    3. Agricultural prosperity went hand in hand with political stability. In many areas, especially in the Nile valley, the state supported irrigation systems, the construction of dams and canals, and the digging of wells (often equipped with waterwheels or noril), all of which were crucial for good harvests.
    Islamic law gave tax concessions to people who brought land under cultivation. Through peasant initiatives and state support, cultivable land expanded and productivity rose, even in the absence of major technological changes.
    Many new crops such as cotton, oranges, bananas, watermelons, spinach and brinjals (badinjan) were grown and even exported to Europe.
    4. Islamic civilisation flourished as the number of cities grew phenomenally. Many new cities were founded, mainly to settle Arab soldiers (jund) who formed the backbone of the local administration. Among this class of garrison-cities, called misr (the Arabic name for Egypt), were Kufa and Basra in Iraq, and Fustat and Cairo in Egypt. Within half a century of its establishment as the capital of the Abbasid caliphate (800), the population of Baghdad had reached around 1 million.
    Alongside these cities were older towns such as Damascus, Isfahan and Samarqand, which received a new lease of life. Their size and population surged, supported by an expansion in the production of foodgrains and raw materials such as cotton and sugar for urban manufactures.
    A vast urban network developed, linking one town with another and forming a circuit.
    5. At the heart of the city were two building complexes radiating cultural and economic power: the congregational mosque (masjid al-jami), big enough to be seen from a distance, and the central marketplace (suq), with shops in a row, merchants’ lodgings (fanduq) and the office of the money-changer.
    The cities were homes to administrators (ayan or eyes of the state), and scholars and merchants (tujjar) who lived close to the centre. Ordinary citizens and soldiers had their living quarters in the outer circle, each fitted with its own mosque, church or synagogue (Jewish Temple), subsidiary market and public bath (hammam), an important meeting place.
    At the outskirts were the houses of the urban poor, a market for green vegetables and fruits brought from the countryside, caravan stations and ‘unclean’ shops, such as those dealing in tanning or butchering. Beyond the city walls were inns for people to rest when the city gates were shut and cemeteries.
    There were variations on this typology depending on the nature of the landscape, political traditions and historical events.
    Question 48
    CBSEENHS11012577
    Wired Faculty App

    Geography favoured the Muslim Empire, which spread between the trading zones of the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. Explain.

    Solution
    1. Political unification and urban demand for foodstuffs and luxuries enlarged the circuit of exchange. Geography favoured the Muslim Empire, which spread between the trading zones of the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean.
    For five centuries, Arab and Iranian traders monopolised the maritime trade between China, India and Europe. This trade passed through two major routes, namely, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. High-value goods suitable for long-distance trade, such as spices, textile, porcelain and gunpowder, were shipped from India and China to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Aydhab and the Gulf ports of Siraf and Basra.
    From here, the merchandise was carried overland in camel caravans to the warehouses (makhazin, origin of the word magazine which has a similar collection of articles) of Baghdad, Damascus and Aleppo for local consumption or onward transmission.
    The caravans passing through Mecca got bigger whenever the hajj coincided with the sailing seasons (mawasim, origin of the word monsoon) in the Indian Ocean.
    At the Mediterranean end of these trade routes, exports to Europe from the port of Alexandria were handled by Jewish merchants, some of whom traded directly with India, as can be seen from their letters preserved in the Geniza collection.
    However, from the tenth century, the Red Sea route gained greater importance due to the rise of Cairo as a centre of commerce and power and growing demand for eastern goods from the trading cities of Italy.
    2. Towards the eastern end, caravans of Iranian merchants set out from Baghdad along the Silk Route to China, via the oasis cities of Bukhara and Samarqand (Transoxiana), to bring Central Asian and Chinese goods, including paper.
    Transoxiana also formed an important link in the commercial network which extended north to Russia and Scandinavia for the exchange of European goods, (mainly fur) and Slavic captives (hence the word, slave). Islamic coins, used for the payment of these goods, were found in hoards discovered along the Volga river and in the Baltic region.
    Male and female Turkish slaves (ghulam) too were purchased in these markets for the courts of the caliphs and sultans.
    3. The fiscal system (income and expenditure of the state) and market exchange increased the importance of money in the central Islamic lands.
    Coins of gold, silver and copper (fulus) were minted and circulated, often in bags sealed by money-changers, to pay for goods and services. Gold came from Africa (Sudan) and silver from Central Asia (Zarafshan Valley).
    Precious metals and coins also came from Europe, which used these to pay for its trade with the East. Rising demand for money forced people to release their accumulated reserves and idle wealth into circulation. Credit combined with currencies to oil the wheels of commerce.
    The greatest contribution of the Muslim world to medieval economic life was the development of superior methods of payment and business organisation. Letters of credit (sakk, origin of the word cheque) and bills of exchange (suftaja) were used by merchants and bankers to transfer money from one place or individual to another. The widespread use of commercial papers freed merchants from the need to carry cash everywhere and also made their journeys safer. The caliph too used the sakk to pay salaries or reward poets and minstrels.
    4. Although it was customary for merchants to set up family businesses or employ slaves to run their affairs, formal business arrangements (muzarba) were also common in which sleeping partners entrusted capital to travelling merchants and shared profits and losses in an agreed proportion.
    Islam did not stop people from making money so long as certain prohibitions were respected. For instance, interest-bearing transactions (riba) were unlawful, although people circumvented usury in ingenious ways (hiyal), such as borrowing money in one type of coin and paying in another while disguising the interest as a commission on currency exchange (the origin of the bill of exchange).
    Many tales from the Thousand and One Nights (Alf Lay la wa Lay la) give us a picture of medieval Islamic society, featuring characters such as sailors, slaves, merchants and money-changers.
    Question 49
    CBSEENHS11012578
    Wired Faculty App

    Who was Abd al- Latif ?
    Solution

    Abd al-Latif was a twelfth-century legal and medical scholar of Baghdad.

    Question 50
    CBSEENHS11012579
    Wired Faculty App

    What was Pahlavi? 
    Solution

    Pahlavi was the language of the sacred books of ancient Iran.

    Question 51
    CBSEENHS11012580
    Wired Faculty App

    Explain the architecture of Islamic world during the 10th century.

    Solution
    1. By the tenth century, an Islamic world had emerged which was easily recognisable by travellers. Religious buildings were the greatest external symbols of this world.
    Mosques, shrines and tombs from Spain to Central Asia showed the same basic design -arches, domes, minarets and open courtyards -and expressed the spiritual and practical needs of Muslims.
    In the first Islamic century, the mosque acquired a distinct architectural form (roof supported by pillars) which transcended regional variations.
    The mosque had an open courtyard (sahn) where a fountain or pond was placed, leading to a vaulted hall which could accommodate long lines of worshippers and the prayer leader (imam).
    Two special features were located inside the hall: a niche (mihrab) in the wall indicating the direction of Mecca (qibla), and a pulpit (minbar, pronounced mimbar) from where sermons were delivered during noon prayers on Friday. Attached to the building was the minaret, a tower used to call the faithful to prayer at the appointed times and to symbolise the presence of the new faith.
    Time was marked in cities and villages by the five daily prayers and weekly sermons.
    Explain the architecture of Islamic world during the 10th century.
    2. The same pattern of construction - of buildings built around a central courtyard (iwan) - appeared not only in mosques and mausoleums but also in caravanserais, hospitals and palaces.
    The Umayyads built ‘desert palaces’ in oases, such as Khirbat al-Mafjar in Palestine and Qusayr Amra in Jordan, which served as luxurious residences and retreats for hunting and pleasure.
    The palaces, modelled on Roman and Sasanian architecture, were lavishly decorated with sculptures, mosaics and paintings of people. The Abbasids built a new imperial city in Samarra amidst gardens and running waters which is mentioned in the stories and legends revolving round Harun al-Rashid.
    The great palaces of the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad or the Fatimids in Cairo have disappeared, leaving only traces in literary texts. The rejection of representing living beings in the religious art of Islam promoted two art forms: calligraphy (khattati or the art of beautiful writing) and arabesque (geometric and vegetal designs).
    Small and big inscriptions, usually of religious quotations, were used to decorate architecture. Calligraphic art has been best preserved in manuscripts of the Quran dating from the eight and ninth centuries. Literary works, such as the Kitab al-Aghani (Book of Songs), Kalila wa Dimna, and Maqamat of Hariri, were illustrated with miniature paintings. In addition, a wide variety of illumination techniques were introduced to enhance the beauty of a book.
    Plant and floral designs, based on the idea of the garden, were used in buildings and book illustrations.

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