Contemporary World Politics Chapter 3 US Hegemony In World Politics

D.

C.

C.

(ii) Hegemony as a structural power: Sale of Chinese toys in the world.

(iii) Hegemony as a soft power: France's influence on the Vietnamese people and they stated wearing French dress in place of traditional Vietnamese dress.

(i) Dominance as Hard Power: American military power is superior to power of all other countries. Its dominance is both absolute and relative.

(ii) Dominance as Structural Power: The US plays an important role in providing global public goods such as Internet which is the direct outcome of a US military research project that began in 1950.

(iii) Dominance as Soft Power: America has class ascendancy in the social, political and ideological spheres. Most of the dreams and practices are results of American life style, e.g., blue jeans are used by the young people.

(i) Institutional architecture of the American state: There is Presidential form of government in USA. Under this a system of division of powers and checks and balances between the three branches of the government limit the unrestrained and immoderate exercise of America's military power by the executive branch.

(ii) Open nature of American society: There is deep sckepticism regarding the purposes and methods of government in American political culture. This put a constraint on US military action overseas as had happened in case of Vietnamese war.

(iii) NATO: This organisation can moderate the exercise of American power because the US has an enormous interest in keeping the alliance of democracies that follow the market economies alive.

The constraint - i.e., institutional architecture of the American state is expected to get more important in future because the American constitution has not changed much during the last about two hundred years. The features of division of power etc. have remained intact. Nature of the people or the NATO may change in future. So the institutional structure will become more important in future.

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(i) One each crashed into the North and South Towers of the World Trade Centre.

(ii) Another crashed into the Pentagon building in Arlington.

(iii) Forth fell down in a field in Pennsylvania.

These attacks are known as '9/11' as in the USA month is written first and date follows thereafter.
This incident also made the US to launch a global war on terror.

(i) First Gulf War: In The First Gulf War, 75 per cent of the coalition forces were from the US. 'Operation Desert Storm' was, thus, overwhelmingly American. The First Gulf War was called a 'computer war' and a 'video game war'. This war revealed that the US was technologically more advanced than other states.

(ii) During Clinton years 1992-2000 the US led air force of the NATO countries raided Yugoslavia on the questions of Kosovo. This led to the fall of Slobodan's government and NATO forces were stationed in Kosovo.

(iii) The US acted against Al-Qaeda for bombing of the US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dares-Salaam which is known as Operation Infinite Reach.

(iv) After 9/11 attacks in September 2001 the USA initiated the Global War on Terror and launched 'Operation Enduring Freedom'.

(v) On 19 March 2003, the US launched 'Operation Iraqi Freedom' inspite of UN refusal to  mandate for the invasion. All these events led to the hegemony of the USA in world politics.

 Events: On 19 March, 2003, the US and forty other countries attacked Iraq. It is known as 'Operation Iraqi Freedom'. The UN had not given mandate to attack Iraq.

Outcomes: (a) No evidence of WMD was found.

(b) A full-fledged insurgency ignited against US led occupation.

(c) About 50,000 Iraqi civilians were killed.

(d) It was both a military and political failure.

(i) Disintegration of the Soviet Union left the US as the sole superpower that dominated the international system.

(ii) The US had superior military power which was both absolute and relative.

(iii) No power or powers could challenge the military superiority of the USA.

(iv) USA is supreme in providing global public goods like internet.

(v) USA has class ascendancy in ideological spheres. For example people all over the world are following the life style of the Americans.

(i) The US has military capabilities that can reach any point on the planet accurately, lethally and in real time. It can cripple the adversary while its own forces are sheltered to the maximum extent possible from the dangers of war.

(ii) No other power today can remotely match the US capabilities.

(iii) The US today spends more on its military capability than the next 12 powers combined.

(iv) US spends a lot of money on military research and development. Thus, there is a qualitative gap between the US and other powers.

(v) As the Iraq invasion shows, the American capacity to conquer, to deter and to punish is formidable. Its only weakness is in policing an occupied territory.

(i) It is reflected in its role in providing global public goods which are consumed by one person without reducing the amount of the good available for someone else such as fresh air and roads. In the world economy, the examples are sea lanes of communications (SLOCs), the sea roots used by merchant ships. The USA underwrites the law of the sea and ensures freedom of navigation in international waters. US navy plays the role of a hegemon.

(ii) Internet, another example of global public good, is also direct outcome of a US military research project.

(iii) The US role in world economy and in the areas of technology is significant.

(iv) The US's share in world trade is 15%. An American firm features in the 'top three' list in every sector of the world economy.

(v) The Bretton Woods system which is the basic structure of the world economy was set up by the US after the Second World War. The World Bank, IMF and WTO are the outcomes of American hegemony.

(a) US North Command.

(b) US South Command.

(c) US Central Command.

(d) US European Union Command.

(e) US Pacific Asia Command.

(iii) The armed forces have been divided into commands in order to enable them to discharge their duties effectively.

There are different alternatives before India that can be adopted in relations with the US. These are to maintain aloofness from the US, to take advantage of US hegemony or to establish a coalition of developing countries to reduce US dominance. Whatever policy India adopts, the fact remains that the relationship with USA has changed and the two countries have come closer to each other.

(i) Bandwagon strategy: Under this it is argued that it is more prudent to take advantage of the opportunities that hegemony creates. This will lead to more economic growth with the support of the hegemon.

(ii) Policy to hide: The strategy for states 'to hide' implies that the states should remain away from the dominant power. Practically, however, it is not possible for mega-states to follow this policy for any substantial length of time.

(iii) Combination of NGOs, social movements and others: The hegemony of the US may be overcome by combination of non-governmental organisations, social movements and public opinion, sections of media and intellectuals, artists and writers. These non-state actors all over the world may form associations to criticise and resist US hegemony.

Inspite of above strategies, the fact remains that the modern world is a global village that can not be left by us. Thus, we have sole option of resistance to US hegemony.

The US responded by launching ‘Operation Enduring Freedom’.

The attacks by four hijacked American commercial aircraft on North and South Towers of the World Trade Centre.

(a) USA

 (b) These countries has borne American Invasion.

 (c) It conveys US hard power to the world.
Note: The following questions are for Blind candidates only, in lieu of e. No. 22:
(i) The world implies the leadership of one state.

(ii) Hard power hegemony is related to military power while soft power is associated with cultural superiority

The values:

 (i) Closer ties with US.

 (ii) Friendly relations with neighbour.

 (iii) Strengthening international body like UNO.

 (iv) Prioritising national security.

On 11 September 2001, nineteen hijackers hailing from a number of Arab countries took control of four American Commercial Aircrafts shortly after takeoff and crashed them into the North and South Towers of the World Trade Center of the US.

The two superpowers responsible for cold war were- The US and The USSR. World became unipolar in 1991. 

The model of transition in Russia, central Asia and east Europe that was influenced by the ‘World Bank‘ and the IMF came to be known as ‘Shock Therapy‘. This was a transition from authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system.

Two constraints on American Hegemony:

 (i) Institutional architecture of the American State itself.

 (ii) A system of division of powers between the three branches of the government places significant brakes upon the unrestrained exercise of America‘s military power by executive branch. 

(i)  Iraq

 (ii) 34

It implies leadership.

It was a series of cruise missile strikes on Al-Qaeda terrorist targets in Sudan and Afghanistan.

The constraint on the American power are:

(i) The first constraint is the institutional architecture of the American State itself. A system of division of powers between the three branches of the government places significant brakes upon the unrestrained exercise of America‘s military power by executive branch.

(ii) The second constraint on American power is also domestic in nature, and stems from the open nature of American Society. There is nevertheless a deep skepticism regarding the purposes and methods of government in American Political culture.

(iii) The constraint on the US is perhaps the most important. There is only one organisation in the international system that could possibly moderate the exercise of American Power today, and that is NATO.

OR

Answer:

(i) Because of naive assessment of the Chinese intentions and lack of military preparedness.

(ii)  The relation between India and China Slowly improve in 1981.

(iii) China’s policy became more pragmatic and less ideological.

(iv) A series of talks to resolve the border issues were initiated.

It can be overcome by:

 (i) Operating within the hegemonic system to take advantage of the opportunities that it creates which is known as ‘bandwagon’ strategy.

 (ii) Staying as far removed from the dominant power as possible.

The attack was a reaction to American cruise missile strikes on Al-Qaida terrorist targets in Sudan and Afghanistan.

The US response to 9/11 was swift and ferocious.

(i) The US launched ‘Operation Enduring Freedom’ against all those suspected to be behind this attack.

(ii) The Taliban regime was easily overthrown.

(iii) The US forces made arrests all over the world, transported these persons across countries and detained them in secret prisons.

The three types of US hegemony are:

(i) Hegemony as hard power-The bed rock of contemporary US power lies in the overwhelming superiority of its military power. The US today has military capabilities that can reach any point on the planet accurately, lethally and in real time. The US today spends more on its military capability than next 12 powers combined. As the Iraq invansion shows, the American capacity to conquer is formidable.

(ii) Hegemony as structural power-Hegemony in this sense is reflected in the role played by the US in providing global public goods. The best examples of a global public goods are sea lanes of communication (SLOC) and Internet. The US share of the world economy remains an enormous
28 per cent. A classic Example of the structural power of the US is the academic degree called the master’s in Business Administration(MBA) .

(iii) Hegemony as Soft Power-This third sense of hegemony is about the capacity to ‘manufacture Consent’. America is the most seductive, and in this sense the powerful, culture on earth. This attribute is called ‘soft power’: the ability to persuade rather than coerce.

OR

The arguments are:

(i) Chinese economy is projected to overtake the US as the World’s largest economy by 2040. Its economic integration into the regions makes it the driver of East Asian growth.

(ii) China has the large foreign exchange reserves that allow it to make big investment in other countries.

(iii) The integration of china’s economy and the inter-dependencies has enabled China to have considerable influence with its trade patners.

(iv) India is one the largest economy in the world having trade relation with almost all countries.

(vi) India also has most number of MNCs operating on its soils.

(vi) It has considerable influence in WTO and IMF as leader of developing world.

Hegemony means being powerful in the sphere of military, economic, political clout and cultural.

(i) U.S.A

(ii) Because all the mentioned countries has been invaded by US.

(iii)This cartoon conveys US hegemony as hard power, where American military dominance today is both absolute and relative.

The three factors responsible for the US hegemony in world Policitcs:

(i) The U.S. Hegemony as a Hard Power-

(a)American military dominance is both absolute and relative. In absolute terms, the US has military capabilities that can reach any point on the planet accurately, lethally and in real time, thereby crippling the adversary while its own forces are sheltered to the maximum extent possible from the dangers of war.

(b)The military dominance of the US is not just based on higher military spending, but on the qualitative gap, a technological chasm that no other power can at present conceivably span.

(ii) The US Hegemony as a structural power-

(a)The internet is the direct outcome of a US military research project that began in 1950.

(b)There is not a single sector of the world economy in which an American firm does not feature in the “top three” lists.

(iii) The U.S Hegemony as a soft power-

The predominance of the US in the world today is based not only on its military power and economic powers, but also on its cultural presence.

(a)All ideas of good life and personal success, most of the dreams of individuals and societies across the globe, are dreams churned out by practices prevailing in 21st century America.

(b)America is the most seductive, and in this sense the most powerful culture on earth.
                                                                                OR
Positive Aspects of India’s relations with Bangladesh:

(i) Bangladesh is a part of India’s Look East Policy that wants to link up with Southeast Asia via Myanmar..

(ii) On disaster management and environmental issues the two states have been cooperating regularly.

(iii) Efforts are on to broaden the areas of cooperation further by identifying the common threats and being more sensitive to each other’s needs.

Negative Aspects of India’s relations with Bangladesh

(i) Illegal immigration from Bangladesh in the states of India.

(ii) Bangladesh’s refusal to allow Indian troops to move through its territory to northeastern India.

(iii) Its support for anti-Indian Islamic fundamentalist groups.

i. In May 1974. – To use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.

ii. Prices were rising due to Arab – Israel war. There was a hike in oil prices, So, India was facing difficulties on the economic front.

iii. The Arab Israel war of 1973.

Evaluate any three major factors responsible for making the European Union a political force from being an economic force.

(i) India should maintain its aloofness from the U.S. and focus upon increasing its own comprehensive national power.

(ii) India should take advantage of U.S. hegemony and national understandings to establish best possible options for itself. Opposing the U.S. would be a futile exercise and will only hurt India in long run.

(iii) India should take the lead in establishing a coalition of countries from the developing world. Over time, this coalition would become more powerful and may succeed in weaning the hegemon away from its dominating ways.

OR

(i) The Council of Europe established in 1949 was a step forward in political cooperation.

(ii) European Economic Community in 1957 acquired a political discussion leading to creation of European Parliament.

(iii) Disintegration of Soviet Union put Europe on a fast track and resulted in the establishment of the European Union in 1992. It has its own flag, anthem, founding date and Currency. E U being the world’s biggest economy has its own political influence also.

Because it opposes engaging in activities that are against the hegemonic power and urges to extract benefit by operating within the hegemonic system.

Yes, it is very important for India to improve its relationship with the U.S. for the following reasons:

(i) After the collapse of the USSR, the world has become unipolar with the US as the sole superpower.

(ii) The technical dimension and the role of Indian American diaspora also factors:

(a) U.S absorbs about 65% of India’s total exports in the software sector.

(b) 300,000 Indians works in the Silicon valley.

(c) 35% of technical staff of Boeing is estimated to be of Indian Origin.

(d) 15% of all high-tech start-ups are by Indian Americans.

(iii) Both countries are natural allies being the largest and oldest democracies.
                                                                           Or

The role and limitation of SAARC:

(i) SAARC is a major regional initiative by the South Asian states to evolve cooperation through multilateral means.

(ii) Unfortunately, due to persisting political differences, SAARC has not had much success.

(iii) SAARC members have signed the South Asian Free Trade (SAFTA) Agreement which promised the formation of a free trade zone for the whole of South Asia.

Limitations:

(i) SAFTA can usher in a chapter of peace and cooperation, but some of our neighbours fear this a way for India to invade their markets and to influence their societies and politics through commercial ventures and a commercial presence in their countries.

(ii) Some people in India think that SAFTA is not worth as we have bilateral agreements with Bhutan, Nepal, and Sri-Lanka.

(iii) Another great limitation is the story of endemic conflicts and violence between India and Pakistan.

Operation Iraqi Freedom was launched by US to prevent Iraq from developing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).

i) Organisation related to western alliances:- NATO
Organisation related to eastern alliances:- Warsaw Pact
ii) a) The smaller states in the alliances used the link to the superpowers to fulfil their own purposes.

b) They got the promise of protection, weapons, and economic aid against their local rivals, mostly regional neighbours with whom they had rivalries.
iii) Most countries of western Europe sided with the US and those of eastern Europe joined the Soviet camp. This tendency is an ample proof that the super powers threatened to divide the entire world into two camps.

The US Hegemony as a structural power

(i) Hegemony as a structural power is the role played by the US in the world economy and existence in providing global public goods – such as the sea lanes of communication (SLOCs)
(ii) The naval power of the hegemony is another reason for its structural power.
(iii) The internet is the direct outcome of a US military research project that began in 1950. Even today, the Internet relies on a global network of satellites, most of which are owned by the US government.
(iv) The US is present in all parts of the world, in all sectors of the world economy and in all areas of technology.
(v) The US share of the world economy remains an enormous 28 per cent. The US also accounts for 15 per cent of world trade. There is not a single sector of the world economy in which an American firm does not feature in the “top three” lists.
(vi) It is important to remember that the economic preponderance of the US is inseparable from its structural power, which is the power to shape the global economy in a particular way.

A.

Operation Desert Storm

Operation Enduring Freedom

(i) The intense rivalry remained a cold war because each of the two super powers knew that they would not be able to save themselves,inspite of the use of nuclear weapons as they both possessed the capability of destroying each other.
(ii) It could never be decisive as each power had ample stock of nuclear
weapons. Even after getting destroyed they could cause destruction and then no body would be victories.
(iii) Inspite of having the capacity to retaliate against an attack, they could not afford to initiate war. This is called the logic of ‘deterrence’.

(i) The U.S. today has military capabilities that can reach any point on the planet accurately.
(ii) No other power in the world can match the capability of the U.S. qualitatively or quantitatively.
(iii) The U.S. today spends more on its military capability thanthe next 12 powers combined

Bandwagon Strategy:

i) The best way to resist hegemony is to work with rather than against the hegemony. So, instead of engaging in activities opposed to hegemonic power, it may be to extract benefits by operating within the hegemonic system.
ii) Hide – Another strategy implies staying away from the dominant power as fas as possible. All the big powers like China, Russia, the European Union are seeking to stay below the radar but this cannot go on for a long time.
iii) However, some people believe that resistance to the US hegemony is the only solution but not from states who are unable to face the hegemony,.
iv) Therefore, challenges to the US hegemony will emerge in the economic and cultural realms and will come from a contribution of Non- Governmental organization Social movements and public opinion.
v) Resistance may be from the sections of media and intellectuals, artists, and writers.
vi) All these together can be successful in resisting the US hegemony.